LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


THE  CONDITION  AND  TENDENCIES 


OF 


leal 


BY 


ARTHUR  HENRY  CHAMBERLAIN 
• » 

Professor  of  Education  and  Principal  of  the  Normal  School 
of    Manual   Training,  Art,  and   Domestic   Economy, 
Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  Pasadena,  Califor- 
nia: Author  of  "  Educative  Hand- Work  Manu- 
als" and  "  A  Bibliography  of  Manual  Arts  " 


SYRACUSE,   N.    Y. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  PUBLISHER 

1908 


Copyright,  1908,  by  C.  W.  BARDEEN 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

ILIFORHi 


INTRODUCTION 

The  question  of  the  technical  phases  of 
education  is,  with  any  nation,  a  vital  one. 
Perhaps  this  is  true  of  Germany  as  it  is  of 
no  other  European  country.  This  may  be 
mainly  due  to  one  of  several  causes.  First, 
as  to  the  length  of  time  technical  education 
has  had  a  place  in  the  German  schools.  In 
some  form  or  another,  and  in  a  greater  or 
lesser  degree,  such  instruction  has  been  in 
vogue  for  many  years,  and  has  in  no  small 
measure  become  part  and  parcel  of  the 
educational  fabric  of  the  nation.  Again, 
throughout  the  various  German  States,  the 
work  is  rather  widely  differentiated,  this 
owing  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  varying 
lines  of  industry  in  adjacent  localities  even, 
give  color  and  bent  to  the  technical  educa- 
tion of  any  particular  locality.  An  extens- 
ive field  is  thus  comprehended  under  the 
term  "technical  education".  Then,  too, 
(v) 


208538 


VI        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Germany  as  a  nation  must  needs  better  her 
condition  in  order  that  she  may  prove  self- 
sustaining.  The  country  is  not  a  wealthy 
one,  and  if  in  trade,  in  manufacture,  and  in 
commerce,  she  is  to  compete,  and  that  suc- 
cessfully, with  the  world  powers,  strength 
must  be  gained  along  such  lines  as  those 
opening  through  technical  education. 

The  hope  is  entertained  that  the  following 
pages  may  prove  of  value,  not  alone  to  the 
student  of  technical  education  as  it  exists  in 
Germany,  but  particularly  to  those  who  are 
endeavoring  to  institute  and  develop  indus- 
trial and  technical  training  in  this  country. 
The  possibility  along  these  lines  is  exceed- 
ingly great  and  the  interest  and  attention  of 
thinking  people  is  focused  here.  They  look 
to  this  form  of  education  as  a  partial  solu- 
tion of  some  of  the  most  obstinate  problems 
now  confronting  us. 


:  ••  •  ^~;."-- 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


Of 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
v 

-  vii 
viii 

-  5 


INTRODUCTION 

CONTENTS    - 

PUBLISHER'S  NOTE  - 

SECTION  I.       Classification  of  Schools 

SECTION  II.     Continuation   Schools  (Fortbild- 

ungsschulen)    -  -16 

SECTION  III.   Trade  Schools  (Fachschulen)  -        41 
SECTION  IV.    Secondary    Technical  Schools 

(Gewerbliche  Mittelschulen)         61 
Schools  for  the  Building  Trades 

(Baugewerkschulen)  61 

Schools    for    Foremen  (Werk- 

meisterschulen)         -  69 

Schools  for  the  Textile  Trades 

(Gewerbeschulen)     -  74 

Industrial  Schools  of  Bavaria 

(Industrie  Schulen)  -  82 

SECTION  V.     Higher  Technical  Schools  (Tech- 

nische  Hochschulen)        -  86 

SECTION  VI.   Schools  of  Industrial  Arts  or 
Art  Trade  Schools  (Kunstge- 
werbeschulen)  -        -        -        -    98 
SECTION  VII.  Bibliography    -  105 

(vii) 


PUBLISHER'S    NOTE 

This  book  was  published  under  some  disadvant- 
ages, as  it  was  delayed  by  the  removal  of  our  office 
to  a  larger  place  of  business,   and  by  a  printers' 
strike,  which  resulted  in  four  changes  in  foremen. 
This,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  author  was 
upon  the  Pacific  coast  and  proof  was  delayed  and 
sometimes  lost  has  led  to  errors  for  which  he  is  not 
responsible.     Besides  typographical  blunders  easily 
recognized  the  following  are  noted: 
Page  13,  next  line  to  last  for  Air  read  Art. 
19,  5th  line,  for  enable  read  ennoble. 
23,  4th  line  from  below,  for  committee  read 

communities. 

25,  5th  line,  for  development  read  department. 
63,  7th  line,  for  models  read  modes. 
72,  next  to  last  line,  the  1  should  be  in  second 
half  of  first  year,  making  the  totals  41 
and  43  instead  of  42  and  42. 
79,  in  table,  Knitting  should  have  1  yr.  in- 
stead of  2  yrs.,  and  the  line  beginning 
Machinery  is  to  be  omitted. 
81,  4th  line  from  below,  insert  to  before  enter. 
93,  last  part  of  paragraph,  read  "The  one 
course  plan  however  has  been  substitut- 
ed for  the  several." 
(viii) 


Technical  Education 
in  Germany 

BY -PROF.  ARTHUR  HENRY  CHAMBERLAIN 
I 

If  one  were  to  point  out  the  most  distinc- 
tive feature  of  the  educational  system  in  the 
Fatherland  to-day,  it  would  perhaps  be  the 
highly  specialized  condition  of  the  technical 
schools. 

In  approaching  our  problem  we  naturally 
ask  ourselves  the  question  as  to  how  far  the 
industrial  progress  of  a  country  is  influenced 
by  technical  education.  In  no  time  as  in 
our  own  has  so  much  stress  been  laid  upon 
the  commercial  side  of  our  existence.  Xew 
trades,  new  industries  are  springing  up  ; 
specialization  is  becoming  more  far-reaching 
and  more  firmly  established  than  ever  be- 
5 


6         TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY 

fore;  competition  is  becoming  keener;  the 
application  of  science  to  the  arts  is  more 
varied. 

In  this  latter  field  we  find  Germany  in  the 
very  fore  front,  she  having  developed  along 
these  lines  to  a  greater  extent  than  have 
many  of  our  nations.  Illustrations  of  this 
application  lie  all  about  us, — in  the  bettered 
transportation  facilities  by  railroad  and  by 
ocean  vessel ;  in  the  more  improved  bridge 
and  building  construction;  in  the  methods 
of  water  supply  and  drainage;  in  modes  of 
heat,  light,  and  ventilation;  in  electric  ve- 
hicles, sound  transmitters,  labor-saving 
machinery;  in  finely  adjusted  instruments 
that  bring  far  away  worlds  almost  within 
reaching  distance ;  in  these  and  a  thousand 
other  ways  is  made  manifest  the  result  of 
the  application  of  science  to  the  arts.  |  Ger- 
many is  taking  a  prominent  part  in  this 
warfare  for  industrial  supremacy,  and  that 
ehe  expects  her  technical  schools  to  be 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY         7 

largely  instrumental  in  answering  many  of 
the  problems  of  the  present  and  the  future 
cannot  be  doubted,  especially  when  one  is 
made  aware  of  the  diversity  and  extent  of 
the  schools  of  a  technical  character  scattered 
over  the  Empire. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  from  the 
foregoing  how  difficult  a  matter  it  is  to 
make  any  one  clasification  that  will  cover 
in  an  adequate  manner  the  various  types  of 
existing  institutions.  Frequently  a  school 
is  found  which  in  some  respects  is  distinc- 
tive. To  place  such  a  school  in  this  or  that 
category  would  of  course  do  violence  to  the 
classification,  while  to  form  a  new  class 
only  serves  to  further  complicate  and  be- 
wilder. Again,  various  of  the  institutions 
mentioned  may  offer  such  a  differentiated 
schedule  or  be  made  up  of  so  many  parallel 
departments  as  to  entitle  them  to  admission 
into  two  or  more  of  the  classes  given. 

Another  point  of  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact 


8         TECHNICAL    EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

that  the  term  "technical"  would  in  Ger- 
many be  somewhat  more  sweeping  than  with 
us  in  America.  We  do  not  class  technical 
training  with  so-called  manual  training  or 
handwork  of  the  elementary  schools.  In 
our  present  study  however,  we  shall  find 
that  while  in  the  main  we  are  dealing  with 
the  technical  training  of  boys  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  years  of  age,— comparable  in  a 
measure  to  our  high  or  secondary  school 
courses,  we  shall  also  include  the  industrial, 
vocational,  or  trade  training  of  men  and 
boys  alike,  as  well  as  work  in  the  more  sim- 
plified forms  of  handicraft,  as  carried  on  in 
the  lower  or  elementary  school.  Reference 
will  also  be  made  to  the  instruction  of  a 
higher  order, — such  for  example  as  makes 
for  engineers.  These  facts  will  be  illumi- 
nated as  the  study  proceeds. 

In  reading  into  these  schools  their  real 
significance,  several  points  must  be  kept 
constantly  in  jnind.  At  an  early  age  the 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

German  youth  is  supposed  to  have  solved 
the  problem  of  his  likes  and  dislikes,  his 
abilities  and  shortcomings;  to  have  gained 
such  a  perspective  of  his  probable  chances 
for  future  success,  as  to  choose  the  line  of 
work  or  occupation  he  shall  follow.  It  is 
only  fair  to  state,  however,  that  circum- 
stances have  much  to  do  with  such  decision, 
viz, — the  occupation  of  the  father,  the  fi- 
nancial outlook  of  the  family,  the  industrial 
demands  of  the  locality,  the  particular  ed- 
ucational opportunities  offered, — these  and 
like  problems  entering  in  as  vital  elements. 
Then  too,  the  founding  and  sustaining 
of  a  technical  school  is  a  matter  to  be  noted. 
This  may  be  in  the  hands  of  the  general 
government,  of  the  state,  of  the  municipal- 
ity, or  may  be  looked  after  by  private  enter, 
prise.  The  Guilds,  Vereins  or  Associations 
may  organize,  equip  and  foster  schools  of 
such  character  as  train  directly  for  their 
particular  lines  of  work.  It  must  be  stated 


10    ^TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

however  in  this  connection,  that  there 
seems  to  be  a  strong  tendency  at  the  present 
time  toward  the  centralizing  of  control  in 
the  states.  This  has  been  brought  about  in 
large  measure  through  the  ever-increasing 
willingness  on  the  part  of  the  state  to  give 
financial  backing  to  the  schools,  and  thus 
has  quite  naturally  arisen  the  desire  and 
necessity  on  the  part  of  the  state,  that  it 
have  a  controlling  voice  in  the  school  ad- 
ministration. Herein  lies  one  of  the  main 
differences  between  such  education  in  Ger- 
many and  that  of  our  own  country. 

Conrad's  Handworterbuch  der  Staatswis- 
senschaften,  1900,  in  an  article  entitled 
"  Gewerblicher  Unterricht  ",  gives  the  fol- 
lowing table  on  state  expenditure  for  trade 
and  technical  instruction  in  recent  years : 
Prussia: 

Marks  142,000  ($33,796)  in  1874; 

Marks  475,000  ($114,050)  in  1885; 

Marks  4,672,000  ($1,111,936)  in  1899. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      11 

Saxony : 

Marks  235,000  ($60,214)  in  1873 

Marks  570,000  ($135,660)  in  1885; 

Marks  1,138,000  ($270,844)  in  1898 
Wurtemburg  industrial  continuation  school: 

Marks,  58,000  ($13,804)  in  1869; 

Marks  129,000  (30,702)  in  1879 

Marks  164,000  ($39,032)  in  1889; 

Marks  208,000  ($49,504)  in  1897. 

The  cost  of  the  state  per  capita  of  the 
population  of  the  expenditures  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

Prussia,  Pfennigs  15  (3|  cts.)  in  1899; 

Saxony,  Pfennigs  29  (7  cts.)  in  1898; 

Hesse,  Pfennigs  22  (5  cts.)  in  1898. 

The  cost  per  Marks  1,000  ($236)  of  the 
entire  state  expenditures  was  Marks  2.27 
(54  cts.)  in  Prussia  in  1899,  and  Marks 
5.88  ($1.40)  in  Saxony  in  1898. 

In  general  the  German  schools  are  classi- 
fied upon  a  basis  of  the  grade  of  instruc- 
tion given  rather  than  upon  the  character 


12      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

of  the  subjects  taught.  Primary  education 
is  compulsory,  that  is  to  say,  all  children 
are  compelled  by  law  to  attend  school  from 
their  sixth  to  their  fourteenth  year.  It  is 
at  this  point  that  we  find  our  difficulty.  To 
quote  Dr.  Alwin  Pabst  of  Leipzig  (who 
speaks  of  conditions  governing  technical 
schools) : 

"The  age  of  admission,  length  of  course, 
fees  and  other  conditions  (examinations ) 
or  these  schools  differ  widely.  Ages  ranges 
from  fourteen  to  thirty  years  or  over ;  length 
of  course,  one  to  four  or  five  years;  fees 
perhaps  twenty  to  thirty  marks  per  year. 
The  Fortbildungsschule  is  the  only  insti- 
tion  in  which  no  fee  is  charged."  (Taken 
from  a  personal  letter.) 

Several  classifications  commend  them- 
selves for  use.  Each  has  its  weaknesses  and 
breaks  down  at  some  point,  owing  to  the 
conditions  previously  mentioned.  In  order 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY      13 

the  better  to  illustrate  this  difficulty  I  shall 
give  these  various  possible  classifications. 

The  first  refers  chiefly  to  the  scheme  of 
secondary  education  and  was  the  one  first 
chosen  and  later  discarded.  It  was  sug- 
gested mainly  by  Sir  Philip  Magnus's  work 
on  " Industrial  Education"  and  the  "  Re- 
port of  the  Industrial  Commission",  Vol.  I. 

1.  Industrieschulen 

Gewerbeschulen 

2.  Trade  Schools 

Fachschulen 

3.  Building  Trade  Schools 

4.  Secondary  Technical  Schools 

Higher  Technical 

Foremen 

Building 

Weaving 

Drawing 

5.  Industrial  Art  Schools  (Kunstgewerbe) 

Pure  Air~t 
Applied  Art 


14      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

6.  Polytechnics     or    Technische    Hoch- 

schulen 

7.  Continuation    Schools — Fortbildungs- 

schulen 

Another  classification,  suggested  in  most 
part  by  a  German  authority  is  as  follows : 

1.  Fortbildungsschulen Continuation 

schools 

2.  Industrie — or   Fachschulen  —  Special 
Trade  Schools 

3.  Gewerbeschulen 

4.  Technischeschulen 

5.  Technische  Hochschulen 

6.  Baugewerkschulen — School  for  Archi- 
tects 

7.  Kunstgewerbeschulen — Schools  of  Art 
In  the  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of  the 

U.   S.   Commissioner  of  Labor  for  1902  we 
find  the  following: 

1.  Technical  Colleges 

2.  Secondary  or  Intermediate  Technical 
Schools 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY       15 

3.  Schools   and   Museums   of   Industrial 
Art 

4.  Schools  for  Foremen 

5.  Schools  for  the  Textile  Trades 

6.  Trade    and    Industrial     Continuation 
Schools 

7.  Industrial  Drawing  Courses 

8.  Other  Institutions  for  Industrial  Edu- 
cation. 

The  order  followed  in  the  present  study 
is  finally  given  below.  It  is  one  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere,  but  more  closely  resembles 
that  of  Dr.  Pabst  (the  second  classification) 
and  that  found  in  the  Seventeenth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor.  It 
has  undoubtedly  its  weak  points,  but  I 
feel  it  is  the  best  that  can  be  made  however, 
as  it  is  based  upon  data  recently  published, 
and  the  results  of  correspondence  with 
German  school  authorities,  in  addition  to 
a  not  very  extended  knowledge  gained 
through  personal  contact  with  the  German 


16      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

schools.  It  may  be  taken  therefore,  as 
bringing  the  work  down  to  the  present 
time: 

1.  Continuation  Schools  or  Fortbilbungs- 
schulen 

2.  Trade  Schools  or  Fachschulen 

3.  Secondary  or  Intermediate  Technical 
Schools  or  Gewerbliche  Mittelschulen 

4.  Technical     Colleges     or     Technische 
Hochschulen 

5.  School  and  Museums  of  Industrial  Art, 
or  Kunstgewerbeschulen 

II 

CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS 
FORTBILDTNGSSHU  LEN 

Since  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years  the 
German  youth  is  no  longer  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  compulsory  school  law,  the  value 
of  the  system  of  continuation  schools  is  rea- 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      17 

lized.  Of  necessity  the  great  mass  of  boys 
are  at  this  age,  forced  to  enter  some  gainful 
pursuit.  It  was  clearly  evident  to  the  Ger- 
man people  that  boys  should  not  be  cut  off 
from  school  education  at  this  early  age. 
Dr.  James  H.  Russell  in  his  German  Higher 
Schools  says : 

"The  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
are  quite  independent  of  each  other — not 
one  boy  in  ten  thousand  finds  his  way  from 
the  highest  class  of  the  elementary  school 
into  the  Gymnasium." 

It  is  evident  that  year  by  year  an  increas- 
ingly large  number  of  boys  discontinue 
their  education  at  the  close  of  the  elemen- 
tary school,  for  a  statsment  made  by  Mr. 
Michael  N.  Sadler,  (Vol.  Ill  of  Special  Re- 
ports on  Educational  Subjects,  London), 
some  years  prior  to  the  above  writing, 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  lesser  percentage 
of  dropping  out  than  that  proposed  by  Dr. 
Russell. 


18      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

The  desire  then  for  more  extended  edu- 
cational advantages  must  have  been  early 
felt,  and  there  sprang  into  existence  what 
has  since  developed  into  one  of  the  most 
significant  features  and  far-reaching  factors 
in  the  German  scheme, — the  continuation 
school.  I  quote  from  Mr.  H.  Bertram  who 
writes  of  the  continuation  schools  in  Berlin, 
December,  1899 : 

"  Amid  the  development  of  civilization 
among  the  nations  the  idea  of  the  continua- 
tion school  is  making  its  way  with  increas- 
ing strength.  Urgently  required  by  the 
conditions  of  social  organization,  and  in  its 
turn  acting  on  them,  the  new  institution 
appears  in  many  forms.  It  claims  its  place 
side  by  side  with  the  Church  and  the 
School. 

Among  the  great  number  of  those  who  enter 
early  upon  the  practical  business  of  life,  to 
whom  the  primary  school  has  offered  a  start 
there  awakens,  sooner  or  later,  the  desire  to 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      19 

share  in  the  stores  of  knowledge  which  hu- 
man intelligence  has  won,  in  the  insight 
into  the  working  of  the  forces  of  nature, 
which  it  has  acquired  and  applied  to  indus- 
try, in  the  arts  which  enable  and  support 
human  actign ;  in  short  to  participate  in  the 
spiritual  treasures  which  are,  as  it  were,  the 
birthright  of  those  born   under  a  luckier 
star.     This  desire,  which  opens  to  the  dili- 
gent the   way  to  material  prosperity  and 
inner  contentment,  seems  for  society  as  a 
whole  an  important  incentive  to  industrial 
progress,  and  turns  the  discontent  of  the 
slaves  of  machinery  into  happiness  of  men 
conscious  of  their  own  success.     The  more 
the  old  order  changes  which  held  the  work 
people  in  the  narrow  bonds  of  tradition,  the 
more  is  customary  prescription  replaced  by 
education  and   independent  judgment,  by 
insight  into  existing  conditions,  by  special 
excellence  within  a  particular  sphere.     For 
this  reason,  the  elementary  school,  however 


20      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

efficient  and  methodically  correct  its  action 
may  be,  cannot  suffice  for  the  happiness  of 
the  masses,  nor  for  the  preservation  of  soci- 
ety. The  instruction  must  come  into  close 
contact  with  the  life  of  the  future  citizen, 
and  must  be  at  the  command  of  everyone 
desirous  to  learn,  as  long  as  he  seeks  it. 
But  the  seeker,  born  amid  such  conditions 
as  these,  needs  guidance.  Public  libraries, 
newspapers,  magazines  help  him  the  more 
he  pushes  forward,  but  without  expert  assis- 
tance he  hardly  finds  the  beginning  of  the 
path. 

''This  is  the  object  of  the  Continuation 
School." 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  define  the 
limits  and  scope  of  the  continuation  of  Fort- 
bildungsschulen.  Conditions  vary  in  the 
different  German  states  and  especially  do 
they  vary  in  the  various  kinds  of  continu- 
ation schools.  Definition  is  made  even 
more  doubtful  when  we  find  that  the  limits 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY      21 

of  certain  schools  overlap.  It  may  be  said 
that  students  are  regularly  admitted  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  Not  in- 
frequently however,  boys  and  men  of  more 
mature  years  take  advantage  of  the  courses 
offered.  Instruction  is  carried  on  during 
the  week-day  evenings  from  six  to  eight 
o'clock  and  on  Sunday  mornings. 

Prussia  leads  the  other  states  in  the  num- 
ber and  character  of  her  supplementary 
schools,  the  system  having  its  fullest  ex- 
pression in  Berlin.  The  fact  became  early 
apparent  that  preparation,  whatever  line 
the  boy  was  to  follow,  was  necessary,  and 
this  thought  is  confirmed  in  the  many 
skilled  laborers  in  Germany  to-day.  In 
Prussia,  as  elsewhere,  it  was  found  that 
boys  many  times  left  the  common  school  be- 
fore they  became  prolicient  in  any  line  of 
book  work.  The  causes  were  various;  pov- 
erty, indifference,  sickness,  overcrowding, 
poor  enforcement  9i  the  compulsory  attend- 


22      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

ance  laws, — all  these  conspired  to  make 
supplementary  schools  necessary.  In  the 
older  provinces  very  little  attention  was 
given  the  continuation  school  prior  to  1875, 
and  almost  as  much  could  be  said  of  those 
provinces  which  were  acquired  in  1866.  In 
1844  a  report  issued  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  makes  mention  of  the 
usefulness  of  ^such  schools,  while  two  years 
,  later  a  second  report  Has  only  slightly  more 
to  say  on  the  subject.  This  lack  of  interest 
may  be  attributed  in  large  measure  to  the 
non-financial  support  of  these  schools  by  the 
government.  ^ 

Several  problems  had  to  be  faced  in  work- 
ing out  the  scheme.  Certain  definite  rela- 
tions between  the  primary  and  continuation 
schools  must  be  observed;  those  coming  in- 
to the  latter  with  an  inadequate  under- 
school  knowledge  must  be  looked  after; 
provision  must  be  made  for  students  of 
lesser  as  well  as  of  more  mature  years;  all 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      23 

classes  of  occupation  must  be  given  atten- 
tion; these  and  many  other  difficult  ques- 
tions were  to  be  met  and  overcome. 

"Three  principles,"  says  Mr.  Bertram, 
"  have  contributed  to  the  solution  of  this 
problem — free  choices  between  the  courses 
provided,  free  enjoyment  of  the  preparatory 
courses  without  fee,  and  the  selection  of  the 
teachers  according  to  their  attainments  in 
a  particular  branch  and  their  ability  to  adapt 
their  instrnction  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils 
or  participants  in  the  course." 

In  certain  sections,  Nassau  and  Hanover 
for  example,  state  aid  came  early  to  the 
continuation  school.  In  1874  an  increased 
appropriation  resulted  in  the  betterment  of 
the  schools  then  existing  and  in  the  further 
establishment  jof  like  institutions.  Here 
the  comm&fogBiust  meet  the  cost  of  build- 
ing, heating,  lighting  etc.,  and  one-half  of 
all  the  expenses  not  covered  by  the  actual 
tuition.  Since  187*there  is  a  fairly  general 


24      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

acceptance  throughout  the  Empire  of  the 
statute  providing  that  all  employes  under 
eighteen  years  of  age  must  be  allowed  to  at- 
tend a  continuation  school,  the  period  of 
attendance  to  be  determined  by  "compe- 
tent authority".  This  naturally  leads  the 
Public  Instruction  Department  to  be  free 
in  its  financial  support. 
^It  will  be  understood  that  in  most  cases 
six  hours  per  week  is  the  attendance  re- 
quired and  that  only  those  who  have  left 
the  Volksschule  or  lower  school  and  are  not 
attending  any  higher  institution  are  ad- 
mitted. In  Saxony  a  somewhat  different 
condition  exists.  Children  who  have  not 
made  satisfactory  progress  in  the  Volks- 
schule must,  perforce,  attend  the  continu- 
ation school  for  two  years. 

The  writer  of  this  paper  was  thoroughly 
impressed  with  the  work  of  the  Sunday 
classes  as  seen  in  Leipzig,  Saxony,  during 
the  summer  of  1899.  His  first  introduc- 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY      25 

tion  to  such  work  was  made,  when  on  join- 
ing a  group  of  boys,  several  of  them  carry- 
ing draughting-boards,  he  was  conducted 
by  them  to  their  school.  The  general 
character  and  development  of  the  boys,  the 
spirit  and  enthusiasm  manifested  by  them, 
and  the  thoughtful  and  intelligent  quality 
of  the  work  produced,  fully  justified  in  his 
own  mind,  the  validity  and  worth  of  the 
Sunday  class  instruction. 

As  between  the  schools  located  in  the 
cities  and  those  in  the  smaller  towns  and 
country  places,  there  is  some  slight  differ- 
ence. They  may  be  classified  as  (a)  rural 
or  (6)  city  schools,  on  account  of  their  lo- 
cation. The  distinction  lies  rather  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  curricula,  the  needs 
of  the  students  in  the  particular  locality 
being  kept  in  mind.  In  the  rural  schools  the 
programme  of  studies  is  somewhat  general, 
comprising  the  German  language,  arithme- 
tic, mensuration,  nature  study;  and  in  some 


26      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

instances  may  be  added  to  these,  geogra- 
phy, German  history,  drawing,  gymnastics 
and  music.  This  programme  is  elective  to 
the  extent  that  the  capacity  and  previous 
education  of  the  pupil  are  considered,  and 
too,  the  ability  of  the  teacher,  local  condi- 
tions and  the  time  spent  by  the  individual 
student.  Such  schools  are  admonished  not 
to  take  on  the  character  of  technical  insti- 
tutions, but  rather  to  continue  the  general 
education  begun  in  the  Volksschulen. 
Only  under  certain  conditions  is  less  than 
four  hours  per  week  of  instruction  permis- 
sible. 

In  Prussia  the  city  continuation  schools 
are  of  two  grades,  each  grade  made  up  of  a 
number  of  classes.  In  the  lower  grade 
schools,  instruction  is  given  in  accordance 
with  the  particular  trade  or  calling  the  pu- 
pil is  to  follow.  In  the  upper  grade,  work 
is  much  the  same,  proficiency  being  the 
chief  additional  feature.  When  six  hours 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      27 

of  work  is  the  minimum,  language,  arith- 
metic, elementary  geometry  and  drawing, 
form  the  body  of  the  course;  while  pen- 
manship, geography,  history,  grammar  and 
nature  study  all  are  taken  up  in  connection 
with  the  reading  work.  Business  forms  are 
not  overlooked.  In  the  more  fully 
equipped  schools  where  the  teachers  are  pre- 
pared for  such  branches,  higher  matheme- 
matics,  mechanics,  physics  and  advanced 
drawing  are  taken  up. 

If,  as  before  stated,  the  various  types  of 
continuation  schools  overlap,  the  same  is 
true  regarding  the  trade  and  industrial 
continuation  schools.  While  in  many  in- 
stances the  work  in  the  latter  schools  is  of 
a  general  character,  aiming  to  supplement 
or  round  out  the  education  of  the  pupil,  we 
find  that  many  of  the  original  schools  of  this 
class  have  developed  into  a  form  of  special 
or  trade  school.  This  is  brought  about 
through  pressure  from  without,  as  it  were. 


28      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

When  a  certain  industry  predominates  in  a 
locality  supporting  a  continuation  school,  it 
is  only  fair  to  suppose  that  the  work  done, 
general  though  it  may  be,  will  be  colored 
to  some  extent  at  least,  by  the  demands  of 
such  industry.  If  this  process  of  merging 
is  carried  sulfciently  far,  as  is  in  many  cases 
done,  the  school  may  lose  almost  or  entirely 
its  original  trend,  and  from  a  Fortbildungs- 
schule,  fall  into  the  class  of  trade  or  Fach- 
schulen. 

In  the  main  then,  the  instruction  given 
in  a  continuation  school  proper,  is  either  of 
a  theoretical  nature  or  involves  some  form 
of  drawing  perhaps,  thus  rendering  any 
other  than  an  ordinary  school  room  un- 
necessary for  class  use.  In  the  city  of 
Leipzig  the  situation  is  dissimilar  to  that 
in  some  north  German  cities.  Here 
the  classes  are  arranged  acording  to  the 
various  trades  followed,  as  bookbinders, 
printers,  lithographers,  bakers,  metal  work- 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      29 

ers,  workers  in  wood  and  stone,  etc.  There 
are  again  in  Southern  Germany  simply 
schools  of  drawing  with  special  reference 
to  the  various  trades  and  industries.  In 
addition  to  these  are  classes  of  a  general 
nature  for  bojs  not  following  special  trades. 
Such  schools  however,  cannot  be  found  in 
the  smaller  towns  or  in  the  conntry.  Cer- 
tain other  Saxon  cities  have  schools  of 
somewhat  similar  character. 

In  the  Consular  Report,  Vol.  54,  No.  202, 
page  447,  1898,  Mr.  J.  C.  Monoghan  says, 
writing  under  the  title  Technical  Educa- 
tion in  Germany : 

"The  supplementary  schools  are  for  the 
people  who  have  to  work,  what  Chautau- 
quas,  summer  schools,  and  university  exten- 
tion  courses  are  for  others. — Parties  in  poli- 
tico-economic circles  Ifave  found  that  the  sys- 
tem of  common  school  education  under  which 
boys  and  girls  were  given  an  ordinary  edu- 
cation in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic  etc., 


30      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

up  to  their  fourteenth  year,  was  inadequate, 
partially  if  not  wholly,  to  the  ends  aimed  at 
in  such  a  system.  To  supply  this  defect  it 
was  urged,  and  finally  proposed  and  favora- 
bly acted  upon,  that  graduates  of  the  com- 
mon schools,  boys  especially,  in  some  few 
cases  girls  too,  should  continue  to  get  in- 
struction a  certain  number  of  hours  a  week. 
This  was  made  compulsory.  Manufactur- 
ers, shopkeepers,  and  mechanics  in  whose 
employ  such  boys  were  found,  and  not  the 
parents,  were  made  responsible  for  the  boys' 
attendance.  In  these  schools,  as  indicated 
in  the  foregoing,  the  boys  get  as  good  an 
idea  as  possible  of  the  trade  or  branch  of 
business  in  which  they  are  employed.  As 
a  rule,  the  hours  of  attendance  are  early  in 
the  morning  or  a  certain  number  of  after- 
noons in  the  week.  Sunday  mornings  are 
not  thought  too  sacred  for  such  work.  It 
seems  to  be  an  acknowledgement  that  the 
years  hitherto  given  to  a  boy  in  which  to 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      31 

get  an  education,  viz.,  from  his  sixth  to 
his  fourteenth  year,  are  not  enough  to 
prepare  him  for  the  struggle  for  life  that  he 
has  to  enter  upon.  Men  have  told  me,  suc- 
cessful merchants  and  agents  here,  that 
they  owe  more  to  the  hours  spent  in  the 
developing  or  supplementary  schools  from 
the  practical  character  of  the  instruction 
given  and  the  information  imparted,  than 
to  the  many  years  spent  in  the  common 
schools.  While  one  is  hardly  willing  to  be- 
lieve this,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  good 
work  done,  and  being  done,  by  the  schools 
referred  to." 

The  Handwerkschulen  in  Berlin  are  very 
similar  to  Fortbildungsschulen  in  Leipsig 
for  example.  These  schools  have  seen  a 
marvelous  developement  during  the  past 
few  years.  They  have  a  technical  quality, 
giving  much  attention  to  drawing.  The 
sessions  are  in  the  evening,  eight  hours  per 
week,  the  fee  being  six  marks  the  half  year. 


32      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

They  are  attended  by  journeyman  and  ap- 
prentices who  come  recommended  by  their 
employers.  In  connection  with  these 
schools  various  Sunday  classes  are  conducted 
throughout  the  city,  each  center  specializing 
along  certain  trade  lines. 

The  Berlin  Handwerker  Verein  is  a  type 
of  continuation  school,  sustained  not  by  the 
state  but  by  an  association.  The  Verein, 
founded  in  1859,  has  for  its  object  the  pro- 
motion of  general  culture,  a  partial  knowl- 
edge at  least  of  the  several  callings  repre- 
sented, and  good  manners  (gute  sitten). 
The  moral  and  ethical  elements  are  not 
lacking.  Here  public  lectures  of  real  merit 
are  given,  together  with  music,  gymnastics, 
and  instruction  in  general  and  technical 
subjects.  Boys  of  good  character,  over 
seventeen  years  of  age,  are  admitted.  The 
families  of  the  boys  in  attendance  are  also 
allowed  to  avail  themselves  of  such  general 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY       33 

exercises,  lectures,  music,  etc.,  as  the  school 
offers. 

"What  may  also  be  styled  as  belonging  in 
a  sense  in  the  continuation  school  category 
is  the  German  Association  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Popular  Education,  with  headquarters 
in  Berlin.  Branches  of  this  association  are 
scattered  throughout  various  parts  of  the 
empire. 

In  the  year  1869,  the  industrial  code  pro- 
vided that  all  boys  under  eighteen  years  of 
age,  might,  at  the  discretion  of  the  local 
authorities,  be  compelled  to  attend  school. 
It  is  thus  evident  that  the  local  or  State 
authority  was  here  consulted,  rather  than 
the  General  Government.  At  the  present 
time  however,  when  the  adjustment  of  this 
matter  is  not  in  the  hands  of  local  authority , 
the  employer,  must,  if  those  engaged  with 
him  desire  so  to  do,  allow  such  boys  to  at- 
tend school  at  their  option.  In  some  States 
however,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Hesse  and  Baden. 


34      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

compulsory  school  laws  are  in  force  among 
all  boys  fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age. 
At  present  the  law  of  1891  is  active  and  the 
portion  touching  our  problem  is  here  given : 
"  Employers  are  required  to  give  the 
necessary  time,  to  be  determined  eventually 
be  the  competent  authorities,  to  their  work- 
ingmen  under  eighteen  years  of  age  who 
attend  an  educational  establishment  recog- 
nized by  the  communal  administration  or 
by  the  State  as  an  adult's  school.  Instruc- 
tion shall  not  be  given  on  Sunday  except 
where  the  hours  are  so  fixed  that  the  pupils 
are  not  prevented  from  attending  the  prin- 
cipal religious  exercise  or  a  religious  exer- 
cise of  their  faith  especially  conducted  for 
them  with  the  consent  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities.  The  central  administration 
may,  until  October  1,  1894,  accord  exemp- 
tions from  the  last  provision  to  adult 
schools  already  in  existence,  attendance  up- 
on which  is  not  obligatory. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY       35 

"For  purposes  of  this  law  schools  giving 
instruction  in  manual  work  and  domestic 
duties  to  women  shall  be  considered  as 
adult  schools." 

This  citation  points  out  that  the  Sunday 
class  work  must  not  conflict  with  the  reli- 
gious services.  There  is  a  strong  senti- 
ment in  many  places  in  favor  of  a  repeal  of 
such  laws  as  prohibit  Sunday  classes  at 
such  times  as  church  services  are  held. 
Many  of  the  clergy  are  opposed  to  the  ex- 
tending of  Sunday  continuation  schools, 
while  for  the  most  pert  the  government 
authorities  are  favorable  to  such  extension. 

As  regards  the  compulsory  age  limit, 
Prussia  of  all  the  German  states  is  follow- 
ing out  the  option  given  the  individual 
States.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  she  de- 
lares  (while  declining  to  accept  the  law) 
that  where  freedom  i^  allowed,  boys  are 
more  likely  to  continue  in  school  after  their 
eighteenth  year.  It  is  insisted  also  that 


36      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

with  the  restrictions  removed,  a  deeper  in- 
terest is  excited  in  the  school  studies.  The 
statement  is  made  however  that  in  Prussia 
two  thirds  of  the  industrial  continuation 
schools  have  compulsory  attendance  laws  in 
force  as  the  local  authorities  may  deter- 
mine. Certain  it  is  that  much  stress  is 
laid  upon  the  ethical  side  of  instruction  in 
the  continuation  schools  and  it  is  agreed 
that  the  compulsory  school  should  not 
transplant  the  regular  continuation  school, 
except' where  it  seems  absolutely  necessary  to 
do  so.  In  Bavaria  for  example,  where  the 
age  limit  by  law  is  thirteen,  the  compul- 
sory school  has  a  place  for  the  time  being 
at  least. 

In  Berlin,  a  century  ago,  Sunday  after- 
noon classes  were  inaugurated,  with  a  pro- 
gramme no  more  varied  than  that  furnished 
by  the  three  R's.  Apprentices  not  equipped 
with  sufficient  school  training  were  forced 
to  attend  the  schools.  In  1869  the  power 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      37 

was  wrested  from  the  trade  guilds  and  the 
elective  system  resulted,  later  producing 
the  Elementary  Continuation  School.  The 
local  city  government  founded  at  a  later 
date  three  such  schools,  and  in  these  a 
more  diversified  curriculum  was  operated, 
adding  to  the  .three  R's,  German  composi- 
tion and  literature,  modern  languages,  nat- 
ural science,  political  science,  law,  book- 
keeping and  drawing.  For  various  reasons 
these  schools  were  not  attended  hy  a  full 
measure  of  success  and  the  city  authorities 
formulated  the  plan  of  placing  the  continu- 
ation schools  in  some  of  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning,  courses  to  be  operative  in 
winter  only.  Later,  from  the  preparatory 
school,  which  fitted  for  the  continuation 
school  proper,  grew  up  the  technical  contin- 
uation school. 

There  are  at  the  present  twelve  schools 
of  the  continuation  type  in  Berlin.  A  large 
attendance  is  desired,  for  with  large  classes 


38      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

groups  of  various  intellectual  standards  may 
be  formed.  The  student  is  free  to  elect 
subjects — as  between  certain  languages, 
mathematics  or  art  studies.  The  Director 
of  the  school,  by  keeping  in  touch  with  the 
employers  in  the  various  trades  and  shops, 
can  thus  control  the  attendance  and  shape 
the  course  of  the  lines  of  work  offered. 

Some  ten  years  since,  two  special  lines  of 
instruction  were  withdrawn  from  the  con- 
tinuation school  proper  —  the  carpenters' 
school  and  the  Gewerbesaal,  comprising 
work  in  drawing  and  theory  involved  in 
machine  construction  and  the  like.  Courses 
for  turners  are  offered  in  the  carpenters' 
schools.  In  Berlin  there  are  in  excess  of 
nine  centers  for  the  last  named  school  and 
ten  centers  for  the  Gewerbesaal,  the  winter 
classes  running  up  to  2000  and  850  pupils 
respectively. 

This  example  serves  to  illustrate  the  fact 
mentioned  in  a  previous  connection,  viz., 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY      39 

that  the  Fortbildungsschule  was  in  some 
cases  merged  into  a  special  school,  for  here 
in  reality  a  Each  or  trade  institution  has  de- 
veloped from  the  original  coDtinuation 
school.  This  practice  has  been  going  on 
more  or  less  extensively  among  the  various 
schools;  and  in  Berlin  especially,  the  con- 
tinuation school  has  been  the  foundation  of 
most  of  the  Faceschulen.  Something  more 
will  be  said  in  this  connection  in  the  sec- 
tion under  trade  schools. 

Regarding  the  continuation  schools  for 
girls  and  women  a  word  may  be  added.  As 
with  the  boys'  schools,  so  these  designed 
for  girls  were  put  on  foot,  partly  at  least, 
from  an  ethical  standpoint.  Girls  spending 
their  days  in  the  factory  and  shop  were  in 
need  of  a  refining  influence,  and  this  the 
continuation  school  afforded.  Courses  were 
offered  in  the  Germa%  language,  arithmetic, 
sewing  and  dressmaking.  The  efforts  made 
to  give  girls  this  training  were  not  entirely 


40      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

successful.  So  many  objections  to  Sunday 
work  were  brought  forward  that  it  was  dis- 
continued. The  burdens  of  the  day  fell  so 
heavily  upon  the  girls  that  they  were  not 
ambitious  to  attend  evening  classes.  At  the 
present  time  the  schools  are  more  largely 
attended  by  girls  who,  during  the  day,  re- 
main in  the  family,  and  in  the  school  take 
up  the  household  arts,  sewing,  cutting  out, 
and  the  like,  and  also  languages,  mathema- 
tics, geography,  etc.,  gymnastics  and  music, 
shorthand  and  typewriting.  It  is  hoped 
soon  to  introduce  cookery  in  all  girls' 
schools.  Drawing  is  given  much  attention. 
There  are  in  Berlin,  nine  municipal  con- 
tinuation schools  for  girls,  which  are,  as  the 
name  indicates,  maintained  by  the  city. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY      41 
III 

TRADE  SCHOOLS  * 

As  has  been  indicated  in  another  connec- 
tion, the  classification  of  trade  schools  as 
such,  is  somewhat  uncertain.  It  has  been 
shown  that  many  of  the  present  schools  for 
special  trades  have  evolved  from  the  contin- 
uation schools  of  the  past.  In  the  transi- 
tion state  it  is  sometimes  quite  difficult  to 
definitely  place  a  certain  school,  whether  in 
the  trade  continuation,  or  trade  group  pro- 
per, or  to  class  it  with  the  Industrieschulen. 
The  trade  continuation  schools  have  largely 
superseded  the  regular  trade  schools,  in 
many  localities  at  least,  and  where  this  con- 
dition exists,  trade  instruction  seems  to  be 
losing  ground,  here  the  Fortbildungs- 
schulen  on  the  one  hand,  and  regular  ap- 


*The  two  previous  articles  were  published  in  the  School 
Bulletin  for  July  and  August.  1906. 


42      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

prenticeships  on  the  other,  coming  in  to  sup- 
plant trade  teaching. 

The  seeming  contradictory  statements 
made  here  must  be  interpreted  in  the  spirit 
rather  than  in  the  letter,  if  the  full  meaning 
and  significance  of  the  trade  school  is  to  be 
grasped.  Trades  are  taught  as  formerly. 
The  point  made  is  that  while  the  trade 
school,  per  se,  is  doing  its  work,  boys  are, 
more  and  more,  being  trained  for  their 
trades  in  the  so-called  trades  continuation 
schools  and  as  apprentices  in  the  shops.  The 
latter  form  of  training  will  be  spoken  of  else- 
where in  this  section  of  the  paper. 

We  have  noted  in  following  the  work  of 
the  continuation  school,  that  the  attempt 
has  been  mainly  toward  the  teaching  of  the- 
oretical subjects,  the  practical  lines  being 
carried  forward  in  the  regular  daily  occupa- 
tions of  the  individuals.  Hence  the  trade  is 
not  held  specifically  in  mind,  although  the 
desired  end  is  -always  kept  in  view.  In  the 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY      43 

trade  schools  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  is 
largely  of  a  practical  nature,  dealing  with 
some  particular  occupation.  The  foregoing 
statement  may  be  taken  as  fairly  represent- 
ing the  Fachschule  point  of  view,  but  it 
should  be  observed  that  while  these  schools 
are  special  trade  schools,  training  for  exam- 
ple iron  workers,  or  joiners,  or  tailors,  there 
is  a  differentiation  within  the  general  class. 
I  refer  to  the  Gewerbeschulen,  where  theo- 
retical lessons  are  sometimes  taught.  These 
schools  will  be  given  mention  in  the  second- 
ary group. 

Admission  to  the  trade  schools  is  gained 
usually  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  length 
of  each  course  covering  a  period  of  three 
years.  The  schools  are  in  receipt  of  finan- 
cial aid  from  both  state  and  local  govern- 
ments. 

To  simplify  our  study,  we  shall  consider 
only  such  institutiois  as  deal  with  a  single 
trade  each,  leaving  the  schools  for  the  build- 


44      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

ing  trades  and  the  like,  and  those  dealing 
with  industrial  art  and  drawing  to  be  treated 
elsewhere.  Specialization  has  been  carried 
so  far  that  the  following  lists  of  schools,  each 
training  for  its  own  particular  trade  or  call- 
ing, may  be  given.  The  list  is  arranged  al- 
phabetically and  without  reference  to  the 
relative  importance  of  the  various  vocations, 
or  to  the  number  of  schools.  Such  schools 
are  now  found  pretty  generally  in  the  larger 
cities  throughout  the  Empire.  Some  of 
these  are  day  schools;  some  evening  schools, 
and  others  again  offer  both  day  and  eve- 
ning courses  and  Sunday  instruction. 

SINGLE  TRADE  SCHOOLS 

Schools  for  Bakers 

"        "    Barbers  and  Hairdressers 

"        "    Basketmakers,     Wickerworkers, 

and  Strawplaiters 
"  "  Blacksmiths 
"  "  Bookbinders 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      45 

"  "    Carpenters  and  Cabinetmakers 

"  "    Chimney  Sweeps 

"  "    Confectioners 

"  "    Coopers 

"  "    Gardeners 

"  "    Glaziers 

u  "    Joiners 

"  u    Marine  Machinists 

* '  u    Masons 

"  "    Painters 

"  u    Paperhangers  and  Decorators 

u  "    Plumbers 

u  u    Photographers 

"  "    Potters 

u  <£    Printers 

"  "    Saddlers,  Trimmers  and  Trunk- 
makers 

11  "    Shoemakers 

"    Tailors 

"  "    Tinsmiths 

"  u    Toymake^s 

u  "    Upholsterers 


46      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

"    Wagoiimakers   and  Wheelrights 
"        "    Watch  and  Clockmakers 
4 '        "    Woodcarvers 

Some  of  the  above  named  institutions  are 
in  certain  localities  styled  apprenticeship 
schools.  These  train  workmen  and  foremen 
of  a  minor  degree.  Shop  work  is  offered, 
and  in  some  cases  pure  and  applied  art  as 
well. 

The  evening  work  of  the  so-called  Artisans' 
Schools  of  Berlin,  are  deserving  of  special 
mention.  There  are  two  such  institutions, 
called  respectively  school  number  one  and 
school  number  two.  The  first  was  estab- 
lished in  1880;  the  second  in  1892.  The 
aim  of  these  schools  is  to  give  to  tradesmen 
and  apprentices  in  their  leisure  hours  such 
a  knowledge  of  drawing,  the  arts  and 
sciences,  as  will  find  an  application  in  their 
own  lines  of  work. 

The  grade  of  instruction  varies  from  quite 
elementary  work  to  that  for  advanced  stu- 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY      47 

dents,   the  latter   being  obliged  to  present 
evidence  of  fitness  before  entering. 

The  following  courses  are  offered,  the  fig- 
ures indicating  the  number  of  hours  per 
week  devoted  to  each. 

Arithmetic 2 

Algebra  2 

Geometry 2 

Trigonometry 2 

Analytical  geometry  and  calculus 1 

Mathematical  problems  involving  phy- 
sics and  mechanics 2 

Descriptive  geometry 4 

Bookkeeping   2 

Physics 4 

Mechanics 2 

Electro-technics 4 

Chemistry  4 

Chemistry  and  pharmacy 4 

Free  hand  drawing  2-4 

Aquarelle ^ 4 

Projection ^A 


48      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

Ornament 4 

Trade  drawing  according  to  occupation       4 

Modeling  in  wax  and  clay 4 

Decorative  painting 4 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  school  num- 
ber two  offers: 

Chasing 4 

Practical  wrought-iron  work 4 

Sketching  and  calculating  the  elements 

of  machinery 2 

The  courses  continue  for  two  years. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  whereas  cer- 
tain enactments  are  in  force  regarding  the 
Sunday  sessions  of  the  Fortbildungsschulen, 
there  are  no  such  restrictions  placed  upon 
the  Fachschulen,  Sunday  morning  classes 
being  held  at  the  discretion  of  the  school 
authorities. 

Let  us  refer  to  our  table  of  single  trade 
schools  as  given  above.  The  statements 
which  follow  have  in  most  cases  been  taken 
from  data  relating  to  the  schools  of  Berlin, 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      49 

and  may  be  said  to  fairly  represent  the  gen- 
eral existing  conditions  throughout  the 
Empire. 

In  the  school  for  bakers,  instruction  is 
given  one  day  weekly  for  two  and  one  half 
hours.  The  theoretical  work  (which  in  com- 
mon with  all  such  ^orkin  the  regular  trade 
schools,  is  related  directly  to  the  particular 
trade  under  discussion)  is  made  up  of  chem- 
istry and  bookkeeping. 

In  the  barbers'  and  hairdressers'  schools, 
instruction  is  carried  on  six  days  each  week, 
four  hours  daily,  the  school  continuing  six 
months  of  the  year,  covering  the  winter 
period.  Each  class  receives  fourteen  hours 
instruction  per  week.  While  the  bakers' 
school  is  supported  by  the  guild,  the  bar- 
bers' school  is  jointly  maintained  by  state, 
city  and  guild.  The  curriculum  includes 
shaving,  hair  cutting,  and  hair  dressing, 
wig  making,  and  ladies'  hair  dressing.  A 
tuition  of  three  marks  is  charged  for  the 


50      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY 

term,  in  the  case  of  apprentices,  and  six 
marks  for  journeymen;  a  charge  five  times 
as  great  is  made  for  ladies'  hair  dressing, 
and  for  the  surgical  lectures,  ten  marks. 

The  guild,  state  and  municipality  main- 
tain the  school  for  basketmakers  and  wicker- 
workers.  Apprentices  receive  instruction 
free,  four  marks  each  semester  being  charged 
the  journeymen  and  adults.  Attendance  is 
compulsory  on  the  part  of  apprentices  of 
guild  members.  Four  hours  work  per  week 
are  given,  on  Saturdays.  The  annual  ex- 
penses of  the  school,  are  about  five  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars.  Four  courses  are  offered, 
as  follows:  first,  general  basket  making  and 
wicker  furniture;  second,  making  of  small 
wicker  furniture;  third,  large  wicker  furni- 
ture; fourth,  fine  and  artistic  wicker 
working. 

In  the  blacksmiths'  school  the  instruction 
is  for  two  hours,  one  day  each  week.  Theo- 
retical work  in  horseshoeing,  and  drawing 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      51 

related  to  the  course  are  taught. 

The  city  and  guild  support  the  school  for 
bookbinders.  The  students  are  both  ap- 
prentices and  journeymen.  They  work 
week  day  evenings  and  Sunday  mornings. 
The  purpose  is  not  to  produce  tradesmen, 
but  rather  to  make  more  proficient  those  en- 
gaged in  some  'form  of  bookbinding,  and  to 
this  end  applicants  must  have  had  experience 
amounting  to  two  years  work  before  enter- 
ing the  school.  All  students  must  be 
grounded  in  the  general  elements  under- 
lying the  trade  before  they  are  allowed  to 
take  up  any  phase  as  a  specialty.  No  fee  is 
charged  the  apprentices  of  guild  members; 
others  pay  five  marks  per  term ;  journeymen 
pay  nine  marks  per  term. 

In  the  cabinetmakers'  school,  all  lines  of 
work  pertaining  to  the  trade  are  taken  up, 
drawing  and  designing  for  trade  purposes; 
free-hand  drawing ;  mldeling,  carving;  prop- 
erties of  woods,  etc.  Instruction  is  given 


52      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

week  day  evenings  and  Sunday  forenoons. 
Four  marks  are  charged  for  the  first  term  in 
the  drawing  course  and  for  each  subsequent 
term,  two  marks.  The  subjects  taken  up 
are:  chemistry,  free-hand  drawing,  pro- 
jection, trade  drawing,  perspective  and 
shadows,  drawing  from  cast,  modeling  and 
wood  carving,  joinery.  The  school  is  under 
public  control. 

In  most  of  the  remaining  trade  schools, 
instruction  is  pretty  generally  given  on  week 
day  evenings  and  Sunday  mornings,  the 
apprentices  of  guild  members  paying  no  fee, 
a  small  charge  being  made  for  outsiders. 
The  support  comes  from  city,  state  and  guild 
in  most  cases.  In  the  school  for  masons  how- 
ever, there  is  a  preparatory  course  and  also 
a  carpenters'  course,  the  whole  covering  a 
three  years  term.  In  this  school  the  in- 
struction is  thorough,  covering  plans,  draw- 
ings and  specifications;  stone,  brick,  and 
wood  construction;  foundations,  arches, 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      53 

staircases,  roofs,  and  the  like.  Almost 
without  exception  in  all  these  schools  the 
winter,  attendance  is  greater  than  that  in  the 
summer. 

Certain  individual  schools  throughout  the 
Empire  deserve  special  mention,  the  Royal 
Fachschule  of  Iserlohn,  the  first  in  Prussia, 
being  a  notable  example.  Here  handwork 
is  combined  with  industrial  art  adapted  to 
metal  work.  Boys  who  entered  the  trade 
were,  in  the  early  days  of  the  school,  found 
to  be  in  need  of  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical work,  so  each  has  a  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum. The  length  of  the  course  is  three 
years,  covering  the  trades  of  designers,  wood 
carvers,  moulders,  founders,  turners,  chas- 
ers, engravers,  gilders,  and  etchers.  Here 
are  taught  drawing  in  all  its  branches; 
modeling  in  wax  and  clay;  history  of  art  and 
metal  work ;  elements  of  chemistry  and  phy- 
sics; mathematics;  German.  Practical 
work  in  the  department  in  which  the  stu- 


54      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

dent  is  engaged,  is  given,  the  student 
stating  on  entrance  what  subject  he  desires 
to  take  up.  The  time  of  instruction  is 
from  eight  to  twelve,  in  the  winter  season, 
and  from  seven  to  eleven  in  the  summer. 
The  afternoon  session  is  from  two  to  six. 
In  the  engineering  trade  school,  three  hours 
per  day  are  devoted  to  ornamental  drawing, 
German,  physics  and  arithmetic.  As  the 
instruction  is  planned  for  working  people  it 
is  largely  theoretical. 

The  Reimscheid  school  is  of  the  appren- 
ticeship order.  Attention  is  given  the 
making  of  edge  tools  and  such  other  imple- 
ments as  are  manufactured  in  the  district. 
All  students  take  drawing  and  design  as 
applied  to  iron  work.  They  are  made 
acquainted  with  the  different  kinds  of  iron 
work  that  can  be  carried  on  in  the  home ; 
are  schooled  in  the  use  of  the  tools  made ; 
learn  regarding  the  markets  at  which  they 
are  sold,  and  the  various  methods  of  their 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      55 

manufacture.  Thus  a  general  understanding 
of  the  principles  underlying  his  trade  is 
given  the  boy  and  he  becomes  acquainted 
with  the  commercial  side  of  his  calling  while 
undergoing  the  necessary  preparation  in 
manipulation.  The  theoretical  work  is  given 
in  the  morning  and  what  shop  practice  is 
offered  is  in  the  afternoon  from  two  to 
seven.  The  tuition  is  twenty  dollars  per 
year. 

The  Pottery  Trade  School  at  Hohr  Grenz- 
hausen,  Prussia,  is  under  State  control. 
There  are  day  and  evening  classes,  the 
former  attended  for  the  most  part  by  the- 
sons  of  manufacturers ;  the  evening  classes 
by  men  and  women  who  are  employed 
otherwise  during  the  day.  There  are  Sun- 
day classes  also.  Decorated  stoneware  is 
given  much  attention.  The  day  class  boys 
enter  with  a  fairly  good  knowledge  of  draw- 
ing and  have  perhaps  attended  the  Fort- 
bildungsschule.  Drawing,  descriptive  geom- 


56      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

etry,  modeling  in  clay  and  wax,  new  forms 
of  vessels  and  original  ornamentation,  paint- 
ing, designing  and  decorative  art,  manu- 
facture of  earthenware,  lectures  and  study 
of  collections,  make  up  the  curriculum. 
Any  original  model  made  becomes  the 
property  ot  the  father  of  the  boy,  or  of  the 
person  financially  supporting  such  boy  dur- 
ing his  attendance  at  school.  Two  duplicates 
of  the  model  must  be  left  at  the  school. 
The  courses  are  three  years,  daily  sessions, 
Saturdays  excepted.  The  fees  are  nominal, 
being  only  five  dollars  per  year  for  the  day 
classes,  thirty  hours  weekly,  and  one  dollar 
for  evening  work,  two  hours  weekly.  Pupils 
living  outside  the  municipality  pay  six 
dollars  per  year  for  day  instruction. 

The  Furtwangen,  or  Black  Forest  schools 
are  made  up  of  several  divisions,  giving 
rather  a  high  class  of  instruction.  Clock 
making,  wood  carving,  and  straw  plaiting, 
are  largely  carried  on. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY  _  57 

This  paper  would  not  be  complete  with- 
out some  mention  of  the  system  of  appren- 
ticeship in  vogue  in  Germany.  The  Lehr- 
werkstatten  or  apprentice  shops  play  a 
considerable  part  in  the  industrial  life  of 
the  Empire.  In  some  instances  they  are 
maintained  in  connection  with  the  trade 
schools,  or  again,  are  semi -private  or  sep- 
arate shops.  The  apprenticeship  shops  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  continuation  schools 
upon  the  other,  are  doing  much  of  the  work 
formerly  undertaken  by  the  trade  schools 
proper.  While  manufacturing  upon  a 
larger  scale  is  recognized  as  possessing  ad- 
vantages over  the  smaller  productive  plants, 
it  has  seemed  wise  to  hold  to  the  handi- 
crafts, in  a  measure  at  least.  The  appren- 
tice system  helps  to  preserve  the  traditions 
and  sentiments  of  the  German  people,  by 
handing  down  these  handicrafts.  The 
associations,  vereins,  and  guilds  of  past 
time,  are  to-day,  through  the  aid  of  legisla- 


58      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

tion,  coming  to  the  fore,  and  bringing  with 
them  many  boys  trained  in  the  shops  under 
the  masters.  To  show  the  power  and  scope  of 
the  guild,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  incumbent 
upon  a  community  to  form  a  guild  whether 
or  no,  let  me  give  the  following  quotation: 
"Persons  carrying  on  trades  on  their  own 
account  can  form  guilds  for  the  advance- 
ment of  their  common  trade  interests.  The 
object  of  the  guild  shall  be : 

1.  the  cultivation  of  an  esprit  de  corps 
and  professional  pride  among  the  members 
of  a  trade ; 

2.  the  maintenance  of  amicable  relations 
between  employers  and  their  employes,  and 
the  securing  of  work  for  unemployed  jour- 
neymen and  their  shelter  during  the  period 
of  their  nonemployment; 

3.  the  detailed  regulations  of  the  con- 
ditions of  apprenticeship  and  the  care  for 
the  technical  and  moral  education  of  appren- 
tices; 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      59 

4.  the  adjustment  of  disputes  between 
guild  members  and  their  apprentices,  as 
contemplated  by  the  law  of  July  20,  1890, 
concerning  industrial  arbitration." 

The  shops  offer  about  the  same  lines  of 
work  as  do  the  private  concerns,  aiming 
however  to  be  more  systematic  and  to  cover 
a  wider  scope.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that 
the  instruction  gained  in  the  shop  is  super- 
ficial, and  not  to  be  compared  with  that  ob- 
tained from  the  traveling  master-workmen. 
When  the  shop  is  connected  with  some  enter- 
prise or  manufacturing  interest,  a  master- 
workman  has  one  apprentice  only  under  his 
charge,  for  which  he  receives  from  the  state 
some  thirty-five  dollars  yearly,  the  boy  being 
given  board,  lodging  and  proper  training. 
The  master  must  have  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-four  years,  and  must  fulfil  certain 
technical  qualifications.  The  instruction  is 
practical  iu  the  highest  degree  and  thus 
follows  the  lead  of  ^he  trade  schools  in  letter 


60      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

and  spirit.  The  fees  are  mainly  paid  in  by 
guild  members,  and  those  not  members 
even,  provided  such  reside  in  the  district 
and  are  connected  with  the  trade  for  which 
the  school  stands.  Local  and  state  aid  is 
furnished.  While  the  period  of  apprentice- 
ship may  extend  over  four  years,  three  years 
is  the  usual  term. 


Of   TH€ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      61 
IV 

ART  TRADE  SCHOOLS 

The  various  types  of  institutions  taken  up 
under  this  head  are  of  an  intermediate  grade, 
standing  half  way  between  the  trade  school 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  higher  technical 
institutions  upon  the  other.  Indeed,  they 
contain  many  elements  in  common  with  the 
lower  group,  their  scope  however  being 
broader  and  more  general  or  indirect,  theo- 
retical work  finding  a  place  in  their  curric- 
ula. Owing  to  a  similarity  in  the  instruc- 
tion given,  several  classes  of  schools  seem  to 
demand  a  hearing  under  this  section.  We 
shall  begin  with  the  more  general  trade 
schools  omitted  from  our  previous  study. 

SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  BUILDING  TRADES 
(  Baugewerkschulen) 

The  schools  for  the  building  trades,  of 
which  there  are  alhalf  hundred  in  the  Em- 


62      TECHNICAL  EDUCATION   IN  GERMANY 

pire,  are  very  similar  in  character  through- 
out. The  Munich  school,  established  in 
1823,  was  the  first  of  its  kind.  Their  aim, 
as  indicated  in  the  title,  is  the  giving  of 
training  in  the  trades  connected  with  the 
various  building  operations.  The  majority 
of  these  schools  offer  a  course  two  years  in 
length.  The  age  of  admission  is  fourteen  to 
sixteen  years.  It  is  a  requisite  under  some 
boards,  that  applicants  have  had  practical 
experience  in  the  line  to  be  followed,  at 
least  two  half-years  and  in  some  cases  two 
full  years,  before  entrance  to  the  school. 
They  must  have  also  a  fair  general  knowl- 
edge of  their  own  language,  and  of  reading 
and  writing  as  well.  The  candidate  must 
be  a  graduate  of  the  Volksschule  or  must 
subject  himself  to  an  examination.  The 
fees  in  these  schools  vary  from  fifty  to  two 
hundred  marks  per  year.  These  are  day 
sessions  only.  The  governing  power  is  in 
.some  cases  vested  in  the  municipality,  fre- 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      63 

quently  in  the  State,  and  again  in  private 
•enterprise. 

While  those  who  go  out  from  these  schools 
may,  some  of  them  at  least,  follow  the 
trades  as  regular  laborers,  others  again  are 
qualified  as  master-  workmen  and  leaders  in 
their  craft.  Construction  in  wood,  stone, 
iron  and  metals;  laws  of  building;  models 
of  heat,  light  and  ventilation;  plumbing; 
interior  fittings;  these  and  other  occupations 
are  taken  up.  The  sessions  of  most  schools 
extend  over  the  winter  months  only,  the 
students  being  actively  engaged  in  their  sev- 
eral trades  during  the  summer  season. 
These  schools  holding  continuous  sessions, 
are  sparsely  attended  during  the  summer. 
When  theoretical  work  is  given,  such  sub- 
jects are  included  as  bookkeeping,  descriptive 
geometry,  physics  and  mechanics,  German, 
free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  design, 
principles  of  architecture.  The  practical  pro- 
gramme comprehends  a  study  of  building  ma- 


64      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY 

terials  and  the  procuring  and  working  of  the 
same;  relative  strengths  and  adaptability  to- 
purpose;  models  of  construction;  ornamenta- 
tion; architecture  and  design;  estimates; 
chemical  properties  of  materials;  supports, 
trusses,  arches  and  the  like.  In  the  more- 
advanced  institutions,  algebra,  surveying,, 
mechanics,  study  of  machines  and  chemis- 
try may  be  added  to  the  theoretical  list 
given,  while  the  practical  studies  are  more- 
intensive,  and  of  a  somewhat  higher  order. 
Special  departments  for  engineering,  (Tief- 
bauabteilungen)  preparing  men  to  occupy 
positions  as  superintendents,  managers  of 
public  works,  construction  directors,  etc., 
are  sustained  in  some  instances. 

Such  schools  are  of  an  inferior  engineering 
type,  and  deal  with  problems  of  advanced 
work  as  related  to  the  construction  of  roads, 
water  works  and  railroads;  municipal  engi- 
neering; bridge  construction;  electro-tech- 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY       65 

nics.     The  theoretical  lines  are  similar  to 
those  pursued  in  other  courses. 

The  schools  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred illustrate  well  the  statement  made  in 
a  previous  connection,  that  the  grade  of  in- 
struction rather  than  the  character  of  the 
subjects  taught,  determines  the  classification 
of  schools  .into  groups.  Three  classes  of 
trade  instruction  have  just  been  men- 
tioned, and  might  well  be  styled  lower, 
middle  and  upper  schools  for  trade  teaching. 
Another  point  of  interest  lies  in  the  fact, 
that  while  we  have  been  speaking  of  theo- 
retical and  practical  subjects  as  forming  the 
curricula  of  the  schools  for  the  building 
trades,  the  distinction  should  rather  be 
drawn  on  the  line  of  traditional  book  sub- 
jects and  applied  or  laboratory  practice. 
Practical  work,  per  se,  is  not  carried  on  in 
the  school.  Thus  we  have  a  close  connec- 
tion between  theory  and  practice;  more 
closely  perhapf  than  is  found  to  exist  in 


66      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

other  trades. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution, 
of  building  trade  schools  throughout  the 
Empire,  the  cities  in  which  such  schools  are 
located  being  given. 

Anhalt  Zerbst 


Baden 


Bavaria 


Brunswick 
Hamburg 
Hesse 
Liibeck 


Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin 


Carlsruhe 

Kaiserslautern 

Munich 

Nuremburg 

Ratisbon 

Wiirzburg 

Holzminden 


Neustadt 


Sternberg 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN   GERMANY      67 


Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz 

Oldenburg 


Prussia 


Strelitz 

Varel 

Aix-la-Chappelle 

Berlin 

Breslau 

Buxtehede 

Cassel 

Cologne 

Deutsch-Krone 

Eckernforde 

Erfurt 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 

Gorlitz 

Hildesheim 

Hoxter 

Idstein 

Kattowitz 

Konigsberg 

Magdeberg 

Mimster 


68      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


Reuss-Schleitz 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 

Saxe- Weimar- 
Eisenach 


Saxony 


Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen 


Nienburg 

Posen 

Stettin 

Gera 

Coburg 

Weimar 

Stadt-Sulza 

Chemnitz 

Dresden 

Grossenhain 

Leipzig 

Orchatz 

Plauen 

Rosswein 

Zitteau 

Arnstadt 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      69 

Wurttemberg  Stuttgart 

SCHOOLS  FOE  FOREMEN 
(Werkmeisterschulen) 
The  Werkmeisterschulen  or  schools  for 
foremen,  are  quite  prominent  in  the  scheme 
of  secondary  instruction.  The  courses 
given  in  these  schools  are  of  a  general  char- 
acter, for  the  most  part  practical,  and  the 
institution,  as  the  name  implies,  fits  men  to 
occupy  positions  as  foremen  and  overseers. 
Machine  construction  is  the  chief  industry 
for  which  these  schools  train.  The  first 
school  of  this  character  was  opened  in  1855 
at  Chemnitz,  Saxony.  There  are  at  present 
twenty-one  schools  of  this  class  in  the  em- 
pire. Sixteen  is  the  regular  age  of  admis- 
sion. Candidates  must  have  an  elementary 
education  on  presenting  themselves.  Two 
years  is  the  average  length  of  course,  includ- 
ing both  winter  and  summer  terms.  A  re- 
quisite for  admission  also  is  practical  exper- 


70      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

ience  in  the  trade,  hence  little  other  than 
theoretical  instruction  is  given. 

To  the  objection  made  by  some,  to  ex- 
tending the  course  over  two  years  of  resid- 
ence and  of  including  the  elementary 
branches  in  the  curriculm  (such  opposition 
favoring  a  reduction  in  time  given  to  pre- 
paration) the  answer  comes  that  the  school 
should  give  a  well  grounded  education,  such 
as  will  fit  the  participant  for  all  the  functions 
of  his  social  and  industrial  life.  Fifty  to 
sixty  marks  is  charged  yearly  for  tuition 
fees.  Certain  of  these  schools  have  both 
evening  and  Sunday  classes,  the  tuition  be- 
ing twenty  marks  yearly  for  week  day  even- 
ings, eight  to  nine  forty-five,  and  Sundays, 
eight  to  ten  in  the  forenoon. 

Table  showing  location  of  schools  for 
foremen : 

Anhalt  Dessau 

Baden  Mannheim 

Bavaria  Four    Mechanische    Fach- 

schulen 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      71 

Hamburg 

Altona 

Cologne 

Dortmund 

Duisburg 

Elberfeld-Barmen 
Prussia  Gleiwitz 

Gorlitz 

Hanover 

Magdeburg 

Inserlohn 

Reimscheid 

Chemnitz 

Saxony  Mlttweida 

Leipzig 

The  following  data  were  compiled  from 
tables  appearing  the  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor  of  the  United  States,  for 
1902.  The  hours  per  week  allowed  each 
subject  taught  in  the  schools  of  machinery 
construction,  at  Duisburg  and  Dortmund, 
Prussia,  are  given. 


72      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 


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TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      73 


The  following  table  showing  the  occupa- 
tions of  one  time  students  at  three  of  the 
Prussian  schools  was  compiled  in  April, 
1898.  This  table  may  be  found  on  page 
883  of  the  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Labor  of  the  United 
States. 


_^ 

^j 

«J 

• 

a* 

A 

% 

& 

35 

a 

IS 

£1 

a:  ^- 

OCCUPATION 

3-£ 

11 

S3  d. 

O  o 

d  3 

..  O 

ti^3 

^Sa 

M^ 

1- 

J  SO 

r 

¥ 

Heads  of  establishments  

•S4 

i 

I 

Other  officers  of  establishments     

237 

107 

11 

Machine  builders  and  foremen  

39 

18 

1 

Wa^e-workers 

34 

9 

Owners  of  establishments  or  shops  
Draftsmen  and  technical  experts  in  offices.   .  . 

10 

86 
3 

3 

55 

83 

Students  at  other  schools  .        

11 

j 

2 

Other  than  technical  work         

4 

1 

Military  service   

16 

Deceased  

11 

Unknown.                           .    .  . 

96 

91 

5 

Total  

531 

103 

74    TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY 
SCHOOLS  FOE  THE  TEXTILE  TEADES 

One  of  the  most  interesting  groups  of 
trade  schools  are  those  for  the  promotion  of 
the  textile  industry  in  its  various  aspects, 
there  existing  at  the  present  time  no  less 
than  seventy-nine  such  institutions.  The 
fourfold  classification  of  these  schools  which 
follow,  seems  to  be  in  accordance  with  the 
spirit  of  the  work  attempted. 

First;  the  superior  weaving  school  (H6- 
here  Webschulen). 

Second;  the  secondary  weaving  schools 
(Webschulen). 

Third ;  the  apprentice  shops  for  weaving 
and  knitting  (Webereilehrwerksta  en). 

Fourth ;  instruction  by  traveling  or  itin- 
erant masters.  (Wenderlehrer) 

Not  only  does  Germany  rank  high  in  the 
character  of  her  textile  schools,  but  instruc- 
tion is  exceedingly  wide  spread.  Then 
again  all  lines  of  the  industry  are  taken  up, 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      75 

from  the  most  elementary  to  the  most  tech- 
nical processes  known.  It  will  thus  -be 
seen  that  men  are  trained  for  the  lower  as 
well  as  for  the  higher  branches  of  the  art.  . 
In  the  highest  classes  of  institutions  weav- 
ing is  almost  exclusively  carried  on.  The 
general  Government  assumes  the  control  of 
these  schools  notwithstanding  that  in  the 
beginning,  many  such  institutions  were  put 
on  [foot  through  the  initiative  of  associa- 
tions and  guilds.  In  each  of  the  several 
classses  the  work  is  both  theoretical  and 
practical.  The  age  of  admission  is  usually 
fourteen  years  and  the  course  of  two  years 
duration. 

The  Webschulen  train,  not  for  specialists 
as  do  the  schools  just  mentioned,  but  rather 
aim  to  turn  out  foremen  and  bosses.  The 
apprenticeship  shops  come  more  closely  in 
touch  with  the  workmen  of  small  means  and 
those  using  hand  machinery,  while  the 
Wanderlehrer  schools  are'moveable.  In  the 


76      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

latter  instance,  the  home  becomes  the  school 
when  the  teacher  is  present;  that  is  a  compe- 
tent instructor  is  employed  to  travel  from 
place  to  place,  visiting  the  small  factories  or 
home  manufacturers,  and  giving  such  in- 
struction as  he  deems  wise  and  necessary. 
Much  good  work  is  still  done  in  the  rural 
homes  of  Germany,  and  through  the  means 
mentioned  the  standards  are  kept  up. 

The  work  of  these  textile  schools  is 
largely  specialized,  depending  upon  the 
the  location  of  the  school.  In  some  locali- 
ties wool,  in  others  linen  or  cotton,  or  again 
in  others  silk  will  be  given  the  chief  atten- 
tion. Both  theory  and  practice  have  a 
place  in  the  school  instruction.  Work  in 
the  various  courses  includes  a  study  at  first 
hand  of  the  materials  used,  cost  of  produc- 
tion, relative  values,  various  processes  of 
manipulation,  chemistry,  drawing,  design- 
ing, painting,  lectures  on  fabrics,  elements 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      77 


of  weaving  and  machinery  used,   and  origi- 
nal design  and  practical  work. 

The   distribution   of    textile    schools    is 
shown  in  the  following  table. 


fl 

33 

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a 

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c 

bO 

be 
fl 

bO 

a 

s 

bD 

Q3 

> 

a 

+^ 

^ 

a 

STATE 

X 

£ 

V 

S3 
0) 

'3  be 
«5 
§ 

33 
3> 

^S 

T3 

a 

c3 

•3 

'3 

VI 

s 
1 

condar 

33 

a 

eaving 
Trim] 

II 

2* 

be 
_fl 

"3 
a 

1 

CO 

& 

OH 

^ 

£ 

co 

£ 

1 

Bavaria 

3 

I 

Prussia                      

fl 

^ 

99 

Reuss-Greitz   

1 

Reuss-Schleitz                    .  . 

1 

Saxe-  Weimar-Eisenach  

j 

Saxony 

27 

Wurttemberg  

i 

The  Prussian  superior  textile  schools  are 
located  as  follows: 

Aix-la-Chappelle 
Bremen 
Berlin 
Grefeld 


78      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

Cottbus 

Miilheim-on-Rhine 
Miinchen-Gladbach 
Sorau 

The  Berlin  textile  schools  may  be  taken 
as  fairly  representing  the  higher  and  more 
completely  equipped  institutions  of  this 
class.  The  age  of  admission  is  sixteen 
years,  a  secondary  education  being  neces- 
sary to  entrance.  Several  courses  are  of- 
fered as  follows: 

knitting,  one  year; 
weaving,  one  and  one-half  years; 
designing,  two  years; 
passementerie  making,  one  year; 
dyeing,  one  year; 
embroidery,  one-fourth  year. 
There    are    day,    evening    and    Sunday 
classes.     The  accompanying  table  shows  the 
subjects   taught   in   each   course   and    the 
number   of  hours   given   to   each  subject, 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      79 


reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  entire  length 
of  course. 


1 

BJ 

!* 

be 

p 

S 

£  j-R 

oa 

S 

SUBJECTS 

3  « 

S^ 

2 

0) 

II 

e« 

£ 

1 

£ 

[1 

ja 
"a 

tl 
fl 

1 

0 

a 

S 

'a 

i 

I 

to 

Q 

M 

fi 

Q 

Theory  of  weaving 

4 

3 

6 

6 

2 

Design  transfer    

!     13 

9 

3 

8 

Materials 

1 

1 

1 

Machinery  .                 

3 

6 

2 

Hand  and  power  looms  

3 

2 

Motors      ..         

1 

Preparing  apparatus  
Finishing  apparatus  
Practical  exercises  

1 

5 

6 

18 

12 

33 

Dyeing 

2 

2 

2 

Analysis  and  production  ol 
knitting  goods 

4 

Chemistry  of  fibers  

2 

Chemistry  and  physics  
Drawing  ....         

8 

23 

2 

5 

4 

Arithmetic  and  bookkeeping 

2 

3 

3 

Jurisprudence 

2 

1 

Lecture                  

2 

In  many  instances  the  weaving  schools 
have  in  connection  with  them  departments 
for  dyeing  and  finishing.  In  such  cases 
much  attention  is  given  to  color  blending 


80      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

and  harmony  and  to  chemistry  as  well. 

GEWERBESCHULEN 

Extended  mention  will  not  be  made  of 
the  Gewerbeschulen,  as  the  point  of  dis- 
tinction between  such  schools  and  the  Fach- 
schulen  was  set  forth  under  the  last  section. 
They  partake  of  the  character  of  trade 

)  , 

schools,  but  are  more  general  in  their  ten- 
dencies. While  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical work  are  given,  the  former  is  not 
always  applied  theory,  the  Gewerbeschulen 
being  based  upon,  what  we  in  America  speak 
of,  as  the  educational  side  of  trade  instruc- 
tion. These  schools  are  attended  by  boys 
and  men  fourteen  to  twenty-four  years  of 
age, — individuals  representing  the  various 
trades.  The  courses  cover  a  period  of  three 
years.  Both  State  and  local  moneys  go  to 
the  support  of  these  schools. 

The  Gewerbliche  Fachschule  of  Cologne 
is  somewhat  distinctive.  It  instructs  chiefly 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN  GERMANY      81 

the  sons  of  tradesmen  and  superior  artizans. 
There  are  three  departments  in  the  school  : 

First — that  of  engineering  and  architec- 
tural drawing. 

Second — modeling  department. 

Third — the  department  of  decoration, 
housepainting,  etc. 

The  session  covers  both  winter  and  sum- 
mer months,  the  winter  term,  as  in  other 
cases,  being  the  better  attended.  Other 
typical  Gewerbeschulen  are  located  at  Grenz- 
hausen  and  at  Reimscheid.  Applicants  for 
admission  must  have  prepared  in  the  Volk- 
schule  or  elementary  school .  The  programme 
comprises  the  German  language,  French, 
English,  literature,  plane  and  descriptive 
geometry,  physics,  chemistry,  drawing, 
mechanics,  machine  construction.  The 
preparation  here  obtained  fits  the  partici- 
pants enter  the  higher  schools,  or  to  act  as 
foremen  and  masters.  These  schools  also 
lead  up  to  the  industrial  schools  of  Bavaria, 
of  which  we  shall  now  speak. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


82      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  OF  BAVARIA 

(Industrieschulen) 

The  industrial  schools  of  the  Bavarian 
Kingdom  stand  out  as  a  distinct  class  of 
educational  institutions.  Here,  since  1872, 
there  has  been  a  clean  cut  system,  presided 
over  by  .a  Minister  of  Education.  While 
the  quality  and  character  of  the  work  done 
are  quite  similar  to  that  taken  up  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  elsewhere,  the  institutions 
are  in  some  respects  more  exactly  defined 
and  supervision  and  instruction  in  the  schools 
of  weaving,  woodcarving,  basketmaking, 
pottery,  violin  making,  etc.,  is  frequently 
superior  to  that  in  some  other  locality. 

The  age  of  admission  is  sixteen  years,  two 
years  being  the  usual  length  of  course;  the 
education  of  the  Eeal-Schule  is  a  requisite, 
or  failing  this,  an  examination  must  be 
taken.  In  1901-1902  the  Munich  schools 
had  an  enrollment  of  241  students,  distrib- 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      83 

uted  as  follows :  mechanical  engineering  124 ; 
chemical  engineering  27;  architecture  62; 
commercial  28.  The  graduates  are  fitted  to 
occupy  positions  of  trust  and  prominence  in 
the  various  industrial  pursuits  of  the  coun- 
try and  to  enter  the  technical  colleges. 

The  Industrieschulen  of  Bavaria  are  four 
in  number,  located  at 

Augsburg 

Kaiserslautern 

Munich 

Nuremberg 

they  having  been  established  in  1868.  Ad- 
vanced courses  are  offered  in  mechanical 
engineering,  chemical  engineering,  building 
construction,  and  commercial  education. 
The  school  at  Wiirzburg  is  of  a  somewhat 
superior  order,  although  secondary  in  its 
tendencies,  machinery  construction  and 
electro-technics  being  given  attention. 

In  the  mechanical  engineering  course  the 
following  subjects  are  studied: 


84      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

elementary  mathematics 
descriptive  geometry  j 
calculus 
surveying 
physics 
German 
French  ] 
English 
mechanics 
machine  work 
machine  construction 
mechanical  drawing 
practical  work. 

In  the  chemistry  course  the  curriculum 
is  made  up  of 

mathematics 

physics 

chemistry 

mineralogy 

German 

French 

English 

machine  construction 

laboratory  work. 

The  building  construction  course    offers 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY      85 

language,  mechanical  drawing  and  archi- 
tecture. 


TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 
Technische   Hochschulen 

We  have  at  this  point  in  our  study  reached 
the  schools  of  highest  rank  offering  training 
of  a  technical  character,  called  variously 
technical  high  schools,  technical  colleges, 
or  polytechnics,  the  Technische  Hochschu- 
len. These  schools  are  not  high  schools  in 
the  sense  that  the  term  would  be  applied  to 
our  American  institutions,  but  are  rather 
schools  of  collegiate  grade,  ranking  in  fact, 
as  the  title  indicates  in  the  university  class. 
While  not  exactly  comparable  to  our  engi- 
neering schools,  they  approach  more  nearly 
these  than  they  do  any  other  of  our  American 
educational  institutions. 

Before  the  beginning  of  the  century  just 
closed  it  was  apparent  to  some  German 
minds  more  far  seeing  than  the  rest,  that 


86      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

schools  of  a  higher  than  secondary  rank 
must  be  inaugurated  to  offer  training  in  the 
sciences;  give  opportunity  to  show  the  ap- 
lication  of  science  to  the  arts ;  and  prepare 
young  men  to  grapple  with  scientific  indus- 
trial problems  such  as  were  constantly 
springing  np.  Should  the  university  attempt 
such  work?  An  effort  was  made  looking 
toward  this  end.  It  was  at  once  evident 
that  here  was  not  the  place  to  begin.  The 
university  was  an  institution  in  and  of  itself. 
Its  methods,  curriculum  and  aim  were  fixed, 
owing  to  long  established  customs.  It  had 
a  certain  work  to  perform,  its  own  peculiar 
function  to  fulfill,  and  traditional  and  class- 
ical tendency  were  too  strong  to  be  checked 
in  their  movement,  or  to  allow  a  branch 
stream  to  flow  in  and  thus  add  to  or  modify 
the  existing  content. 

The  war  for  industrial  s/upremacy,  be- 
tween England  and  Germany  particularly, 
was  a  prominent  factor  leading  up  to  the 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      87 

establishment  of  technical  schools  in  the 
atter  country.  Germany  saw  the  necessity 
or  heroic  action,  and  her  people,  anxious  to 
improve  from  the  standpoint  of  her  indus- 
tries at  home  not  only,  but  that  they  might 
rival  and  surpass  their  neighbors  across  the 
11  Silver  Streak  "  readily  took  up  the  cry 
for  advanced  scientific  training.  This  then 
was  the  object  of  the  Technische  Hoch- 
schulen:  (1) 

"  They  were  intended  to  secure  for  sci- 
ence a  foothold  in  the  workshop,  to  assist 
with  the  light  of  reasoned  theory  the  pro- 
gress of  arts  and  industry,  till  then  fettered' 
by  many  a  prejudice  and  hindered  through 
lack  of  knowledge;  on  the  other  hand,  they 
sought  to  raise  that  part  of  the  nation  en-* 
gaged  in  industry  to  such  a  love  of  culture; 
as  would  secure  to  it  its  due  measure  of 
public  resptct." 

(1)  Note  on  the  earlier  History  of  the  Technical  High 
School  in  Germany  by  A.  E.  Twentymen  in  Special  Reports; 
on  Educational  Subjects,  London,  Vol  9,  page  468. 


SS      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

The  dates  of  the  founding  of  the  now  ex- 
isting Technische  Hochschulen  vary  some- 
what, certain  of  the  schools  growing  out  of 
&  foundation  which  at  the  beginning  was  of 
-a  low  or  intermediate  grade.  Several  of  the 
ischools  have  passed  through  a  period  of 
ttransition  or  reorganization  state  during  the 
•course  of  their  existence.  The  institution, 
:and  time  of  establishment  of  each  are  as  fol- 
lows. 

Berlin,  1799     Stuttgart,          1829 

Carlsruhe,          1825     Brunswick,       1835 
Munich,  1827     Darmstadt,        1868 

Dresden,  1826     Aachen,  1870 

Hannover,    1879 

In  1799  was  instituted  in  Berlin  the  Bau- 
akademie,  a  State  institution  whose  purpose 
was  set  forth  in  the  royal  decree  thus : 

"To  train  in  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  capable  surveyors,  architects, 
civil  engineers,  and  masons,  principally  for 
the  Kiugs  dominions,  but  foreigners  may 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      89 

find  admittance  if  no  disadvantage  accrue 
thereby  to  the  King's  subjects." 

Later,  in  1821,  Gewerbeschule  came  into 
existence,  and  in  1879  the  union  of  these 
two  formed  the  Berlin  Technische  Hoch- 
schule  which  is  located  in  Charlottenburg, 
a  suburb  of  the  city.  Owing  to  the  high 
standards  of  this  institution,  it  is  styled 
the  Koeniglische  Technische  Hochschule. 
Since  its  reorganization  the  plans  of  the 
other  schools  of  like  character  have  been 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  Berlin 
scheme. 

The  preparation  necessary  for  admission 
to  the  Hochschulen  is  equivalent  to  that 
demanded  by  the  university  proper.  The 
age  of  admission  probably  never  drops  below 
seventeen,  the  average  age  being  consider- 
ably greater.  Men  of  mature  years  and  of 
wide  experience  and  training  avail  them- 
selves to  the  privileges  offered.  The  courses 
are  from  three  to  four  years  in  length. 


90    TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY 

(2)  "The  new  universities  thus  developed 
have  the  purpose  of  affording  higher  instruc- 
tion for  the  technical  positions  in  state  and 
community  service,  as  well  as  in  industrial 
life,  and  of  cultivating  sciences  and  arts 
which  are  intimately  connected  with  the 
field  of  technology  (Berlin  provisory  statue, 
1879).  They  prove  themselves  equal  to 
universities  in  the  following  points:  they 
claim  for  their  matriculated  students  the 
same  preparatory  education  required  by  the 
old  universities,  namely,  nine  years  at  a  class- 
ical high  school;  they  grant  and  insist  upon 
perfect  freedom  in  teaching  and  learning; 
and  are  under  the  direction  of  rectors  elected 
for  one  year,  instead  of  having  principals 
chosen  for  life  as  in  secondary  schools. ' ' 

It  may  be  said  here  that  an  exception  to 
the  rule  of  the  annual  election  of  the  admin- 
istrative officers,  is  furnished  in  the  exam- 

(2)  Report,  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1897-1898,  page  70. 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GEBMANY    91 

pie  of  the  Munich  school,  which  retains  a 
permanent  Director  as  the  custom  prevailed 
in  times  past.  « 

Unless  otherwise  qualified,  students  must 
have  prepared  in  the  Industrieschule,  the 
Gymnasium,  the  Real- Gymnasium  or  in  the 
trade  or  building  schools.  In  lieu  of  this 
an  examination  is  demanded.  Twenty-four 
is  the  minimum  age  of  graduation. 

In  tracing  the  development  of  these 
schools  from  unpretentious  beginnings  to 
their  present  high  standards  of  excellence, 
we  see  that  more  and  more  they  have  be- 
come unified  in  purpose  and  similar  in  cur- 
ricula. In  the  early  days  too,  the  qualifi- 
cations for  admission,  their  dynamic  gov- 
ernment, and  educational  standards  were 
lower  and  more  diversified  than  we  find 
them  to-day.  Sustained  by  the  State  and 
and  each  administered  by  its  board  or  coun- 
cil, they  are  doing  a  work  which  cannot  be 
excelled  by  the  universities  themselves. 


92    TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GEEMANY 

The  organization  of  deparments  of  work 
offered  is  approximately  the  same  in  all 
schools.  In  Berlin  there  are  six  depart- 
ments : 

first,  general  school  of  applied  science; 

second,  general  construction  engineering; 

third,  machine  construction; 

fourth,  naval  engineering; 

fifth,  chemistry  and  mining  engineering; 

sixth,  architecture. 

Special  attention  is  given  certain  subjects 
in  one  or  another  of  these  schools;  civil  or 
mechanical  engineering,  building  construc- 
tion, industrial  chemistry,  etc.  An  agricul- 
tural department  is  maintained  at  Munich, 
and  a  forestry  department  at  Carlsruhe. 
That  a  knowledge  of  the  application  of  elec- 
tricity is  considered  essential  in  our  modern 
methods  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  all  stu- 
dents in  departments  of  machine  construc- 
tion engage  in  the  study  of  electro- technics. 

The  courses  of  study  are  to-day  upon  more 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY    9£ 

of  an  elective  basis  than  formerly  although 
even  now  the  results  of  the  work  of  Nebe- 
nius  are  clearly  seen.  The  success  of  the 
Hochschulen  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  Nebe- 
nius  more  than  to  any  other  one  man.  His 
ideas  were  worked  out  at  Carlsruhe  and  in 
greater  or  lesser  degree  incorporated  into  all 
the  schools.  It  was  insisted  by  him  that  a 
proper  foundation  must  be-  laid  before  any 
successful  special  technical  training  can  be 
had.  Preliminary  work  must  be  mastered 
and  a  natural  sequence  of  studies  followed. 
To  this  end  a  fixed  graduated  course  is  rec- 
ommended, the  student  to  be  promoted  as 
ability  may  determine.  For  the  one  course 
plan  however  have  been  substituted  the 
several. l 

The  following  table  compiled  from  various 
sources  will  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of 

1  "Program  der  KOnigl.  Technischen  Hoch- 
schule  zu  Hannover,  1901-1902, page  90.  Den  Horern 
bleibt  die  Wahl  der  Lehrfacher  frei  iiberlassen,  Fftr 
ein  geordnetes  Studium  empfiehlt  sich  aber  die 
Beachtung  der  folgenden  Studien  und  Stunden- 
plane." 


o  «> 

m 

on 

s 

1/1    O 

a 

*4 

*~"     *•* 

t» 

i 

O 

u 

SUBJECTS 

£f 

a 

o 

S 

^o 

fc.l 

General 

58- 

Mechanics,  Physics  and   general 

33 

•Science 

science     studies;     literature, 

French,  English,  Italian,  law, 
political  science. 

Civil 

34 

Mechanics,  railway  construction, 

13 

Engineer- 
ing 

bridges,  canals,  harbors,  hy- 
draulics, drainage,  land  sur- 

veying. 

Mechan- 

54 

Kinematics,   machine    construc- 

23 

ical 
Engineer- 
ing 

tion,  mechanical  technology, 
machine  design,  water,  steam 
And  electrical  machines,  elec- 

tro-technics, electro-mechan- 

ics,   electrical    and    railway 

works. 

Naval 
Engineer- 
ing 

19 

Theory  of  ship  building,  classifi- 
cation of  ships,  designing  of 
warships,     boilers,     machine 

6 

construction,   practical    ship 

building. 

Chemistry 
and 
Metallurgy 

51 

Organic  and  inorganic  chemistry 
including  physical,electro  and 
technological  chemistry,  crys- 
tallography, metallurgy,  foun- 

27 

dry   work,  cements,   botany, 

chemistry  of  plants  and  foods. 

Architec- 
ture 

65 

History  of  art,  architecture  and 
ornament;  building  construc- 
tion, designing  of   buildings 
in  different  materials  and  for 

36 

various  purposes,,  preparation 
of  estimates,  etc. 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY    95 

the  work  as  carried  on  in  Berlin.  The 
school  has  a  library  of  54,000  volumes;  a 
student  body  of  upwards  of  4,500  and  a 
modern  equipment  throughout. 

The  rivalry  existing  among  the  various 
schools  is  in  some  respects  a  point  to  be 
commended.  Then,  too,  the  idea  taking 
form  in  the  Hochschulen  and  being  more 
fully  appreciated  by  the  educationalists  of 
our  own  country,  that  each  school  should 
specialize  along  some  particular  line,  is 
worthy  of  attention.  Energy  is  saved  there- 
by, and  students  may  have  the  advantage  of 
increased  facilities  in  equipment  and  in- 
struction. Many  Americans  are  studying 
in  these  schools,  possibly  more  in  Munich 
than  elsewhere.  While  thorough  in  their 
treatment  of  subjects,  the  practical  side  of 
the  work  is  too  much  lost  sight  of  in  the 
theoretical  treatment.  Testing  and  applied 
work  are  certainly  given  considerable  atten- 
tion however.  To  quote  Dean  Victor  0. 


96    TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  QEEMANY 

Alderson  of  the  Armour  Institute,  Chicago,, 
who  says  in  reference  to  testing : 

"Professors  regard  this  work  as  professional  prac- 
tice, just  as  doctors,  who  are  professors  in  medical 
schools,  have  an  outside  practice.  The  technical! 
school  allows  the  professors  free  use  of  the  labora- 
tories, but  assumes  no  responsibility  for  the  accuracy 
of  the  results  or  opinions  expressed." 

The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Engineering  is 
conferred  by  these  institutions,  and  that 
their  work  has  been  highly  instrumental  in 
developing  the  country  cannot  be  doubted,, 
especially  in  the  line  of  applied  chemistry 
in  which  branch  of  engineering  Germany 
leads  the  nations.  How  closely  the  devel- 
opment of  the  industries  of  Germany  are 
related  to  the  work  of  the  Technische  Hoch- 
schulen  it  is  difficult  to  say,  but  that  these 
schools  have  shown  through  the  accom- 
plishments of  their  graduates  that  high 
standards  of  moral  and  intellectual  train- 
ing can  be  had  in  other  than  the  tradi- 
tional universities,  and  that  as  efficient  social 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      97 

service  can  be  rendered  through  the  appli- 
cation of  science  to  the  arts  and  industries 
as  by  means  of  the  languages,  cannot  be 
doubted. 


98      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 
VI 

SCHOOLS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  OR  ART 

TRADE  SCHOOLS 

» 

The  Kunstgewerbsechulen  are  schools  of 
art.  The  causes  leading  to  their  inception 
are  clearly  set  forth  in  a  paragraph  contained 
in  the  1902  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Labor.  It  reads : 

"The  international  museums  of  1851, 
1855  and  1862,  in  England,  Austria  and 
Germany,  respectively  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  with  all  their  technical  excel- 
lence the  industrial  products  of  Germany 
possessed  few  qualities  of  artistic  finish  and 
design.  France  showed  what  could  be  done 
in  this  direction.  Her  products  easily  held 
first  rank  in  this  respect,  her  eminence  being 
the  result  of  centuries  of  training  in  this 
field.  Since  Colbert's  time  industrial  art  ed- 
ucation has  been  emphasized  in  the  training 
of  French  workmen,  and  the  accumulated 
skill  and  taste  due  to  this  training,  has  left 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY      99" 

its  impress  on  French  products.  The  Ger- 
man states  at  once  set  about  to  remedy  this 
weakness  in  this  respect,  and  since  that  time- 
have  so  persistently  established  museums 
and  schools  for  industrial  art  training  that 
now  there  is  no  important  city  in  the  Em- 
pire which  does  not  possess  one  or  more  of 
these  institutions". 

Considerable  variety  exists  among  the  va- 
rious types  of  art  schools  and  even  among 
those  belonging  in  the  same  class  and  separ- 
ated as  to  location  we  find  differences.  In- 
Leipzig,  Saxony,  for  example  the  Kunst- 
gewerbeschule  aims  at  the  graphic  arts 
mainly.  In  Berlin,  Dresden,  Carlsruhe,  and 
certain  other  cities  these  schools  train  for 
sculptors  and  painters,  and  the  term  tl  Aka- 
demie ' '  is  frequently  applied  to  these  insti- 
tutions. They  are  in  fact,  art  trade  schools- 
whose  main  purpose,  while  yet  industrial, 
is  also  the  instilling  of  an  artistic  feeling 
into  industrial  work.  They  reach  on  and 


100      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

•out  from  the  trade  school  and  up  to  the  in- 
stitutions for  the  teaching  of  the  fine  arts. 
They  are  then  a  middle  grade  of  applied  art 
schools. 

The  genesis  of  the  industrial  art  schools 
really  lies  in  the  establishment  of  museums 
of  industrial  art.  The  museums  were  an  in- 
•epiring  and  energizing  force,  for  here  the 
best  work  could  be  exhibited  and  studied. 
The  municipality  and  general  government 
financed  the  movement  for  the  museums. 
Schools  sprang  up  in  connection  with  the 
museums  and  later,  independent  art  schools 
were  established. 

A  moderate  fee  is  charged  those  who  pur- 
sue work  here,  twenty  to  forty  marks  yearly. 
Candidates  must  have  had  practical  experi- 
ence in  the  line  of  work  they  propose  to  take 
up,  and  both  these  schools  and  the  so-called 
industrial  drawing  courses  assume  a  certain 
proficiency  on  the  part  of  the  candidates; 
&  proficiency  in  general  subjects  and  in 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY   101 

drawing  particularly.  An  examination  is 
given  those  who  cannot  present  the  desired 
credentials.  The  length  of  the  courses  in 
these  schools  is  usually  three  years.  The 
classes  are  both  day  and  evening,  8  A.  M.  to 
4  p.  M.  and  from  5  to  10  p.  M.  In  some  in- 
stances Sunday  sessions  are  held  also. 

The  courses  consist  of  architectural  design- 
ing in  wood  and  metal,  metal  engraving  and 
chasing,  modeling,  steel  engraving  and  etch- 
ing, design  for  fabrics,  pattern  designing, 
artistic  embroidery,  decorative  painting, 
enamel  painting,  designing  and  painting  fig- 
ures and  plants.  The  work  throughout  is 
both  theoretical  and  practical  in  its  nature, 
the  instruction  gained  in  the  class  being  ap- 
plied in  the  shop.  The  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion and  time  devoted  to  each  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  course  pursued.  As  an  example 
of  the  programme  offered,  the  following, 
taken  from  the  architectural  draftsman's 
course  in  the  Munich  school  is  given;  the 


102       TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

figures  show  the  number  of  hours  per  week 

devoted  to  each  subject. 

First  year, 

linear  drawing  7 

ornament  drawing  •  9 

modelling  of  ornament  and  of  the  hu- 
man figure  21 
history  of  art  1* 
style                             ,  1 
geometry  and  projections          .                  3 

Second  year, 

architectural  drawing  7 

drawing  and  modeling  of  the  human 

figure  and  modeling  of  ornaments       20 
history  of  art  1 

style  1 

perspective  and  shadows  2 

anatomy,     xylography,     architecture, 
sculpture,  or  chasing  10 

Third  year, 

architectural  drawing  7 

drawing  and  modeling  of  the  human 
figure  and  modeling  of  ornaments       10 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY       103 

anatomy  1 

xylography,  architecture,  sculpture  or 
chasing  24 

The  Bauschule  are  only  for  those  who 
wish  proficiency  in  architectural  studies. 

What  the  Industrial  Hall  at  Carlsruhe, 
the  Industrial  Art  Museum  at  Berlin,  and 
Ihe  National  Museum  at  Munich  are  to  the 
art  schools  proper,  the  open  drawing  halls 
are  to  the  industrial  drawing  courses.  Here, 
as  in  the  museums,  are  kept  models  and  de- 
signs of  rare  merit  and  students  may  pursue 
work  under  competent  instruction.  Such 
halls  are  established  in  Bavaria,  Hesse, 
Prussia,  Saxony  and  Wurttemberg. 

In  these  art  courses  skill  and  originality 
are  aimed  at  equally.  The  relation  existing 
between  the  art  work  and  the  trade  or  in- 
dustry with  which  it  is  connected  is  such  as 
to  make  more  valuable  the  latter. 

It  is  needless  to  speak  further  of  the  mu- 
seums. The  art  products  there  exhibited 


104       TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

give  much  incentive  to  students,  as  well  as 
a  feeling  for  the  best  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  beautiful  and  artistic,  and  all  who 
visit  them  are  consciously  or  unconsciously 
influenced  for  the  better. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution 
of  industrial  art  schools  throughout  the 
various  States. 

Alcace- Lorraine,  Miilhausen,  Strasburg. 

Anhalt,  Dessau. 

Baden,  Carlsruhe,  Pforzheim. 

Bremen , 

Bavaria,  Kaiserslautern,  Munich,  ^Turem- 
berg. 

Hamburg, 

Hesse,  Mentz,  Offenbach. 

Prussia.,  Aix-la  Chapelle,  Barmen,  Berlin^ 
Breslau,  Cassel,  Cologne,  Diisseldorf,  Elber- 
feld,  Frankfort-on  the-Main,  Hanau,  Han- 
over, Iserlohn,  Konigsberg,  Magdeburg. 

Saxony,  Dresden,  Leipzig,  Plauen. 

Wurttemberg,  Stuttgart. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY       105 

VII 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Beobachtungen  und  Vergleiche  iiber  En- 
richtungen  fiir  Gewerbliche  Erzichnung, 
1901.— Dr.  G.  Kerschenteuer. 

Das  Gewerbeschulwesen. — Ca^-l  Melchior. 

Denkschriften  tiber  die  Entiwickelung 
der  Gewerblichen  Fachschulen  und  der 
Fortbildungschulen  in  Prussen. — Luders. 

Encyklopadischer  Handbuch  der  Padogik. 
-W.  Rein. 

English  Technical  Instruction  Commis- 
sion, 1896.  Report  on  the  Recent  Progress 
of  Technical  Education  in  Germany. 

Fortbildungsschule  in  unserer  zeit. — 
J.  B.  Meyer. 

German  Higher  Schools.  —  James  E. 
Russell. 

German  Technical  Schools,  1901.  —  Victor 
C.  Alderson. 

Gewerbliche  Fortbilduugsschulen  in 
Deutschlands. — R.  Xagel. 


106      TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

Handworterbuch  der  Staatswissenschaf- 
ten,  1900.— Conrad. 

Hoherer  Polytechnischer  Unterricht  in 
Deutschland,  etc. — Carl  Koristka. 

Industrial  Education.  —  Philip  Magnus. 

Jahresbericht  der  Koniglichen,  Industrie- 
schule  und  Baugewerkschule  zu  Munchen, 
1898-1899. 

Jahresbericht  der  Technischen  Statts- 
lehranstalten  zu  Chemnitz,  1890. 

Jahresbericht  u'ber  die  Berliner  Fort- 
bildungsschule,  1890-1891. 

Kunstgewerbe  als  Beruf,  1901. 

Note  on  the  Earlier  History  of  the  Tech- 
nical High  Schools  in  Germany. — A.  E. 
Twentyman. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects, 
London,  1902,  Vol.  9,  page  465. 

Faeries'  Handbook,  1899. 

Problems  in  Prussian  Secondary  Educa- 
tion for  Boys. — Michael  E.  Sadler. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects, 
London,  1898,  Vol.  3. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY       107 

Program  der  Koniglichen  Fachschule  zu 
Iserlohn  Metal  Industrie. 

Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education,  J 889-1890,  page  1209-1212. 

Same,  1894-1895,  Vol.  1,  page  345-380. 

Supplementary  and  Industrial  Schools  in 
Germany. 

Same,  1895-1896,  Vol.  1,  page  138. 

Same,  1897-1898,  Vol.  1,  page  69.  Ger- 
man Technical  Colleges. 

Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  1892,  Eighth  Annual. 

Industrial  Education  in  Germany. 

Same,  1902,  Seventeenth  Annual. 

Trade  and  Technical  Education  in  Ger- 
many, page  871. 

Second  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Technical  Education,  London,  1884r 
Vol.  1. 

The  Educational  Foundations  of  Trade, 
and  Industry,  1902. — Fabian  Ware. 


108      TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

The  Continuation  Schools  in  Berlin. — 
Dr.  H.  Bertram. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects, 
London,  1902,  Vol.  9,  page  451. 

United  States  Consular  Reports.  De- 
scription of  the  School  of  Carpentry  and 
Cabinetmaking  in  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  No. 
238,  July,  1900.— Wm.  Diederich. 

Same.  School  of  Marine  Machinists, 
Fleusburg,  Prussia.  No.  174,  March,  1895. 

Same.  Technical  and  Merchant  Schools 
56:208,  page  78.— J.  C.  Monoghan. 

Same.  Technical  Education  in  Germany. 
54:202,  page  447.— J.  C.  Monoghan. 


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